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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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11.25 


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2.2 


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2.0 


1.8 


14    IIIIII.6 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 
Microfiche 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
reproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
the  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


"i    Coloured  covers/ 


G 


Couverture  de  couleur 

Covers  damaged/ 
Couverture  endommagee 

Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaur^e  et/ou  pelliculie 

Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  geographiques  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 


j       I    Bound  with  other  material/ 
I 1    Relie  avec  d'autres  documents 


D 


Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

Ld  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  int^rieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
11  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajout^es 
lors  dune  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  6tait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
p  IS  ete  filmees. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  supplementaires: 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6t6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-etre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  m^thode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiqu^s  ci-dessous. 


I      I    Coloured  pages/ 


Pages  de  couleur 


□    Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommag^es 


I       I    Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 


D 

D 

D 


Pages  restaur^es  et/ou  peiliculees 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxe( 
Pages  d^colorees,  tachet^es  ou  piquees 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  detachees 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 

Quality  of  prir 

Qualite  inegale  de  I'impression 


0  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 

I      I  Pages  detached/ 

r~~1  Showthrough/ 

I      I  Quality  of  print  varies/ 


Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6t6  filmees  i  nouveau  de  facon  a 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  film6  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu6  ci-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

30X 

uX 

jf 

12X 

16X 

20X 

24X 

28X 

32X 

The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 


L'exemplaire  film6  fut  reproduit  grdce  &  la 
gdndrositd  de: 


tails 

du 
3difier 

une 
■nage 


Scott  Library, 
York  University 

The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Scott  Library, 
York  University 

Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettut^  de  l'exemplaire  film^,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  onding  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprim^e  sont  filmds  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmds  en  commenpant  par  la 
premidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — ♦-  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED "),  or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END  "), 
whichever  applies. 


Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  —^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
film^s  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diffdrents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cliche,  il  est  filmd  d  partir 
de  Tangle  supdrieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n^cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


rratc 
:o 


pelure, 
1  a 


□ 


32X 


1  2  3 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

M 


m 


i 


SELECTIONS 


U.I.I   s  I  UA  I  l.\(. 


ECONOMIC    HISTORY 


SINCH    THE    SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR. 


CoMIMLKI)     BY 
l;i;.\J.\.\ll.\      k.A.M),     I'H.l). 


f] 


CA.Ml'.KIDCi;: 
\\*  A  T  E  R  M  A  N     A  X  L)     A  >  I  K  K , 

Ma  rva  k  1)     S(,)  (•  .\  K  1-:. 
I  S  8  S  . 


J 


B^     ISl-.XJAMIN     ItAMJ. 


Press  of 
13  0  c  ii  to  c  U   &   C  1)  u  t  c  I)  i  I 

BOSTOJJ. 


4 


PREFATORY    NOTE. 


Tin;si-:  selections  have  been  made  fm  use  as  a  text-lx.ok  n[ 
miuireclreadin- to  accompany  a  course  of  lectures  on  eco- 
nomic l.istory  oi,.,,n  at  Ifarvanl  CoIleL;e.  The  work  uas  un- 
dertaken at  the  re<iuest  of  l'n,f\:ssor  Charles  F.  Dunbar,  to 
whose  kind  counsel  the  con^Mler  has  been  throughout  L^reatly 
iiulebted. 

Thi.  book  lia.  already  I)een  aclopted  for  a  similar  purpose 
as  at  Harvard  by  other  leading;  American  Universities. 
Althou-h  the  compilation  uas  prepare!  with  special  reRn"- 
ence  to  the  needs  of  stiulents  in  courses  of  economic  study, 
}-ct  the  natm-e  and  scoi)e  of  the  selections  render  the.n  of 
vaku.  to  anv-  person  wlu.  may  desire  to  obtain  a  k.iou  led-e 
of   some   of   the    most   important    events    and    influences    in 

modern   economic   Jiistorv  u    n 

I'.   K. 

CwMiKuieK,  May,  1888. 


m 

■ '?  •'■  I 

i 


Sl;ll 


Ll'AI 


Till- 

I 
Tin;  ( 

Ecoxr 


Thf.  1-: 

E  J-  ) 


Till-;  O 


COMEMS. 


p\. 


Li;.\i>i.\(i  .Si;cii(;.\s  i- 
I  Acts  . 


;"M     Till';     lACr.lSM     \w 


C'A  riox 


From  i:nglisli  Statutes  at  I.ar^t 


"Till-:    COLOMAI.    1', 


II, 


iK'v  uF  E[  R,  )\'i: 


■'rom  Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  X, 


ition.'- 


Till-;  riRi;AT  I.WKx 


11  OX; 


i-'rom  \Valj)„Ic"s  llistorv  nt   I 


II, 


n^hind. 


EcoxoMic  C\rsi- 


IV 


s  OF  TiiK  Frkxcii   Rkvoi  rnox 


"rom  Von  S 


yhfl's  Firnch  1 


M'\i)hiti()n. 


0- 


Thf,    1':M  \X(  IRATIXC,    H 


V. 


niCT  OF  Sn-.ix 


From  Seeley's  Lite  and  T 


imes  ot  Stein. 


7^ 


VI. 


Thf  Ordfr 


S    L\    COUXCH. 


l"i(.  ni  J,t,\i"s  Hi.s 


torv  ot"  British  Co 


m  me  ice. 


97 


vr 


r(i\Tr\r>^. 


■|"'ii;   I'lNwci/-   oi-    l'.\(ii,A\h,    i7<);t-iS[5 
riMiii  I'mici'^  l'ni::rt"-s  nf  tlir  X.itiun, 


l'\(,i. 


Till 


\'IIf. 
'I'm;  /<»[[, \  i:ui,i\ i  ^o 

Fi'dir.  iloui-iiiLj's  Ri'port  on   tlu'   I'nissian  ( "oniincnial  I'liidii, 
J'arl.  iJoc,  1840. 

l.i:  Zn!.i.\!;i;ri\ .         -151 

r'roni  I.c-(i\t'^  I,a  Immiuc  vt  ri-araiiLTcT. 


Till    I 

'Jill 


IX. 

I'm:  Corn  Laws         .         .         .         , 

J'"r();ii  l.vv'\'<.  Ilistoi-v  n(  ilriti->h  Coivaiierce 


I^>,S 


'Jiii: 


X. 

'I'm;  Xi'.w  (.iiiiD  .         .         .         .         . 

From  Cainics'  Koays  in  I'diitical  lu-Mnomv. 

XI. 

Fraxcf  sous  r.i;  Si:co\d  IImi'ire 

Fruin  Luvas.M.:ur"s  Ilistoire  tlt's  Classes  Ouvricres. 

XII. 

The  FRExnr  Imvemxitv:  — 

The  rAVMExr  of  the  Five  AIieliards 

From  lUackwootrs  Kdiiihur^'li  .Ma^axine. 

The  Ai'i'LicATiox  (jf  the  Ixdi-.mxitv    . 

Fioni  Kolb's  The  Condition  of  Xations  (T'rans.). 


i8g 


The 

Fr 


225 


M 


Les  I)e 

Frc 


237 


^59 


(.  '-'.\  MAI 


VII 


I'M,!. 


I    I 


Till 


xm. 

I'N  I     I'koCKIlSS    (  >[■    1  1   \|,\- 


i''r((in  WiNiiiiVs  The  K 


I'AOK 


!^,^ 


nin-cs  (if  Afdilcrii  ( 


cm  (  iiiintrit 


I.  ^O 


iilon, 


■^.■) 


163 


Till.  I'm  ri:i»  Si 


.\l\' 


ATI.S    I\    iSSn-  — 


'i'lii-:     l.\(i;i;  \>i':    (»]■     I'oi 
iNSo 

Fnnii   Walk,.]-  and  Canm'll" 


'   \ri(i\      l|.;i)\[ 


1790      in 


.XatliMi,  Tciitli  C 


K>'iu'i't  '-'11   l!n'  I'ro-ivss  ,,{   t! 


cnsus. 


Ill':    l-\\rT()R\-   S\>ri;\| 
From  \\"ii-lu'>  Rl-],uvi  nn  tlu'   K 


Stales,  'i'entli  (_ 


Ktory  S_\>Uiii    of  !lu'    rnih 


CllSllN. 


'J'lii:  C<)!ro?N  M.wi 

Frnin  Atkinson's  K 


ACIlRj-.S 


C 


I""-'  ""  the  Cotton   .Manu(a,;tnn;s,  Tenth 


cnsus. 


Tin:  ]r().\    \\[)  SfKKL  I 


Mu;s'[kii-;s 


189  '■'■'""  ■'Swank's  St, 

Trntli  Census. 


itistics  of  the    Iron  and  Steel   I 


2S6 


;o8 


3^7 


1  -I  /-\ 


I'oiiiicnoii, 


XV 


Les   DF/iri-.s  P 


FMLIdi  i;> 


■~o 


From  X-yniarek"s  I.es  Dettes  I 


J-1- 


iiI'lKjues  lun-opeciim 


■3/ 


:259 


LF 


An  . 

Fo 

Navii 
and   1 

most 

plfSt'l 

TlKlt 

hiiiidr 

moclit 

any    I 

belon*. 

unto   ( 

cessor; 

Vessel 

do    tn 

£>igl(\ 

upon  . 

said   L 

tors  an 

fourths 

in. 

That    1 
Prodnc 


SELECTIONS. 


I. 


li:ai)]\g  six-noxs  from  tiik  fxglish  navigatiox 

ACTS. 


Act  or  1660,  j2  C\H.  11.,  C-.  iS. 

yl;/   Jlc/  for  t/ic  E  neon  ran  inn-  and  Increasing-  of   Shipping 

and  Xavii^ation. 

For    the    Increase    .,f   Shipi.int,^    and    Encotna-,'iucnt    of    the 
Navi-aliun  ..t   this  Xation,  wheivin,   under  the  -(,„d   Providence 
and   Protection   .,f  (;..d,  the  WeaUh.  Safetv  and   Stren-th   of  this 
Kn,-doni  is  M,  nuich  concerned;    {>)    I5e  it  enacte.l  in'ihe  Kino's 
most  Excellent  iMajesty,  and   l.y  the    Lords  and   Commons  in  this 
present    I'arliament    assembled,    and    l.v    the    Authority    tiiereof, 
llK.t  Ironi  and  alter  the  llrst  day  of  J)eeembcr.  one  thousand  six 
hundred   and   sixty,  and   from   thenceforwai  d,  no  Goods  or  Com- 
ni.uhties  whats(,ever   shall    he    importe.l  into   or  exported   out  of 
anv    Lands.    Islands,    Plantations   or   Territories    to    his   .NL.jestv 
bel(,n-ui-  or  in   his  Possession,   or  which   mav   hereafter  helon- 
unto   or  he  in  the  Possession  .;f  his  AL.Jestv,  his  Heirs  and   Suc"- 
^ssors.  ui  Asia,  Africa,  w  America,  in  any  other  Ship  or  Ships, 
Vessel  or  \  essels  Nvhatsoever,   but    in    such    Ships  or  Vessels  as 
do    truly    and    Nvithout     Fraud     helon-    only    to    the    People    of 
England  or  Ireland,  Dominion  of  Wales,  or  Tonvu  oU^er-cick 
upon  T-vecd,   or  are   of  the   Built  of  and   belonging   to  any  the 
said   Lands,    Islands,   Plantations,  or  Territories,  as  the  Proprie- 
tors and  right  Owners  thereof,  and  Nvhereof  the  Master  and  three- 
rourths  of  the  Mariners  at  least  are  ^^<!^r/^//; 

in.      And    it   is  further  enacted    by  the   Authority   aforesaid, 
llKi     no    Goods    or  Commodities   whatsoever,   of  the    Growth 
Production    or    Manufacture   of  Africa,   Asia    or  America,  o,' 


,5 
if* 


2  SKl.r.CTIO.NS. 

of  ;inv  Part  thereof,  or  w  liieh  are  descilhed  or  laid  down  in  the 
usual  Ma])s  or  Cards  of  those  IMaees.  l)e  imported  into  Iiifi^/ainL 
Ireland  or  Walcs^  Islands  ot'  (iiicriiscy  and  Jcr.scy^  or  Town 
of  Bcf-cick  upon  y\i'rr(/.  in  other  .^hip  or  Ships,  W-ssel  or 
\'essels  \viiatsoe\  er.  hut  in  such  as  do  truly  and  without  Fraud 
belong'  oid\  to  the  People  of  Jiiiij[lauil  iiv  Ireland,  Dominion  of 
Wales,  or  lOwn  ol'  lierxcick  u[)on  7\ceed,  or  of  the  Lands, 
Islands,  Plantations  or  d'erritoi'ies  in  ^Isla,  yl/'r/ca.  (n.lwer/ca, 
to  his  Majesty  heloni^in^-,  as  the  Proprietors  and  rii^ht  Owners 
thereof,  and  whereof  the  Master,  and  three-fourths  at  least  of  the 
^Mariners  arc /i^/^^'Z/.s/- ; 


I\'.  And  it  is  t'urther  enacted  b\'  the  Authority  aforesaid, 
That  no  (ioods  or  L'onunodities  that  are  of  I'^oreij^n  (irowth, 
T'roduction  or  Manufacture,  and  which  are  to  he  hrou^^ht  into 
IL)iiila)id ,  Ireland,  Wales,  the  Islands  of  (r/iernsey  and  Jersey. 
or  Town  of  h'er-i'/ek  upon  7\c"ed,  in  Iimil/s/f-hvxWt  Shippint;", 
or  otluM'  ShippiuL;^  heloiiLt'inL;'  to  some  of  tiie  aforesaid  Places, 
and  navigated  hv  Iini^li>/i  Mariners,  as  afoiesaid,  sliall  he  ship])etl 
or  hrou^ht  lV.)ni  anv  other  Place  or  Places.  Country  or  Countries, 
but  onl\-  tVom  those  of  the  said  (Jrowth,  l*roduction  or  Manu- 
facture, or  from  those  Ports  where  the  said  (ioods  and  Com- 
modities can  only,  or  are,  or  usually  haye  been,  tirst  shipped  for 
Transportation,  and  from  none  other  i'lacc  or  Countries  ;     .     .     . 


SECTIONS    FROM    I'.Ndl.ISII    N.WICArioX    ACTS. 


clown  in  the 

I',  or  Town 
,  \'esscl  or 
:hout  Fraud 
)oniiuion  of 
tlu-  Lands, 
)r  America^ 
^ht  Owners 
least  of  the 


V  atoresaid, 
;n  (irowth, 
)ron;4ht  into 
and  Jersey. 
It  Shippint^, 
^aid  Places, 
1  he  shipped 
r  Countries, 
n  or  Manu- 
and  Corn- 
shipped  for 
es  ; 

aforesaid, 
|)duction  or 
]  )ominii)ns 
\l/iscovv  or 
'I'iniher   or 


r    Fl, 


Ijrain. 


IX, 


Pot- 


ac. 


or 


]  It 
\riL  wliich 


dred 


sixtv- 


lor 


Town   of 
' 'essels 


belong'  to 
livneis  and 
dburths  of 


modilies  of  the  (Jrowlh.  Production  or  Maiuifaotjne  of  any  the 
Countries.  Islands.  Dominions  oi- Territories  to  the  Offoi/iai/  or 
"J'/irk/s//  ICuipire  hel()n'4inL,^  shall  from  and  aftei  the  lii'st  day  of 
JScpiciiibrr.  which  shall  be  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
six  hundred  sixtv-one.  be  imported  into  any  the  at'ore-mentioned 
places  in  anv  Ship  or  Vessel,  but  which  is  of  liii^lish  built,  and 
navij^ated,  as  aforesaid,  and  in  no  other,  except  oidy  such  foreiji^ii 
Ships  and  \'essels  as  are  of  the  Built  of  that  Country  or  Place  of 
which  the  said  ( ioods  are  the  (irowth.  Production  or  ALnmiact- 
lue  respectix  el\-.  or  of  such  Port  where  the  said  (roods  can  only 
be.  rr  most  usuall\-  are,  llrst  shipped  for  Transportation,  and 
w  hereof  the  Master  and  three-fourths  of  the  Mariners  at  least  arc 
of  the  saiil  Country  or  Place  ; 


XVIIL  And  it  is  further  enacted  by  the  Authority  aforesaid. 
That  from  and  after  the  tirst  Da\-  of  ApriL  which  shall  be  in  the 
"^'ear  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  six  buiulred  sixty-one,  no  vSuij^ars, 
I'obacco,  Coltou-W'ool,  Indi'^oes,  (jiuL;er.  I\istick,  oi"  other  d\ini^ 
Wood,  of  the  (Jrowth,  Prcnluction  or  ^bmufacture  of  anv  I'2n<::^- 
lisli  Plantations  in  America ,  Asia  or  Africa,  shall  be  shipped 
carried,  conveved  or  transported  from  anv  oi  the  said  Iinoiisit 
Plantations  to  any  Land.  Island,  Territory,  Dominion,  Poit  or 
Place  whatsoever,  other  than  to  such  other  Unglish  I'lantations 
as  do  belonn'  to  his  Maje^t\',  his  Heirs  and  Successors,  or  to  the 
kin<fdom  of  Jiiifflaini  or  Irelaiuh  or  Principalitv  of  Wales,  or 
'J'own  of  Berwick  upon   T'lvceds  there  to  be  laid  on  shore  ;    .    .    . 

Act  of  i66j,   14  Car.   II.,  c.   11. 

XXIIL  And  whereas  some  Doubts  and  Disputes  have  arisen 
concerning  the  said  late  .Vet,  For  i/tcreasiifi^'  and  cnconrag^iiig- 
of  Shippiiii^  and  Navigation,  about  some  c)t  the  Goods  therein 
prohibited  to  be  brought  from  Holland  and  the  Parts  and  Ports 
thereabouts;  (2)  He  it  enacted  and  declared,  that  no  Sort  of 
Wines,    (other    than    RhcnisJi)    no    Sort    of    Spicerv,    Grocerv, 


Tob 


icco,  Pot-Ashes.  Pitch.  Tar.  Salt,  R<vdn,   Deal-Hoards,    Fir, 


nor 


C 


Timber,  or  Olive-Oil,  shall  be  imported  into  England,  Wales, 
or  Berwick,  from  the  Netherlands  or  Germany,  upon  any 
Pretence    wliat.soever,  in  any   .Sort  of   Shi'^s  or  Vessels    whatso- 


I! 

Ill 

I 


.ft 


0111  ■ 


:'\er 


4  SELECTIONS. 

Act  ok   iC)C>t„   15  Car.  11.,  c.  7. 

\".  And  ill  regard  his  MaiL'stv's  I'laiitations  Ik'voikI  tiie  Seas 
arc  iiihaliitcd  and  peopled  !)\'  his  snl)iecls  of  this  his  Kin^'doin  of 
]iiigla)id .  lor  the  lllailltaillil1^•  a  'L;rcalei"  Correspondence  and 
Kinchicss  het\vei.'n  them,  and  kecpiiiL;"  them  in  a  fnrther  Depend- 
ancc  ni)on  it.  and  rendrint;  them  \et  nioi'e  hcneilcial  and  ad- 
vantau'cous  nnlo  it  in  the  further  Imphntnent  and  Increase  of 
lini^iish  .Shippinii^  and  Seamen.  \^ent  of  Hi/o//s/i  Woollen  and 
other  ^ranufactnres  and  Commodities.  rcndriiiLT  the  Xavijjjation 
to  and  from  the  same  more  safe  aiul  cheap,  and  makin;^  this 
Kini^dom  a  Sta])le.  not  only  ot'the  Commodities  of  those  planta- 
tions, hut  also  of  the  Commodities  of  other  Countries  and  Places 
for  the  Suppl\  iiiL^  of  them  ;  and  it  heini^  the  l'sa<i;e  of  other 
Nations  to  keep  their  Plantations  Trade  to  themselves  : 

VI.  Be  it  enacted,  and  it  is  hercliy  enacted.  That  from  and 
after  the  il\e  and  twentieth  Dav  of  March,  one  tiio'isand  six 
hundred  si\t\-fonr,  no  Coinmodil\-  of  the  (irowtli.  Production  or 
^Manufacture  of  Juiropc^  shall  l)e  imported  into  anv  I>and, 
Island.  Plantation,  Colonv,  Territory,  or  Place  to  his  Majesty 
beloiii^iiiij;.  or  which  shall  hereafter  beloiif^  unto  or  he  in  the  Pos- 
session of  his  Majesty,  his  Heirs  and  vSnccess-ors.  in  Asia,  Africa 
or  America,  (  l^infficr  only  excepted)  hut  what  shall  be  boiia- 
jidci  and  without  Fraud,  laden  and  shipped  in  Knglaud,,  ll^a/cs, 
or  the  Town  o'l  Bcncici'  upon  Tweed,  and  in  En<^lish  built  Ship- 
pint;^,  or  which  were  bo7ia-fidc  bought  before  the  iirst  day  of 
October  one  thousand  six  hundred  sixty  and  two,  and  had  such 
Certilicate  thereof  as  is  directed  in  one  ^\ct  passed  the  last  Sessions 
of  this  Present  Parliament,  intituled.  An  Act  for  prcvoitirig 
Fraints,  aud  Ixcgnlatiiig  Abitscs  i  11  liis  ^fajcstv  s  Customs;  and 
whereof  the  Master  and  three  Fourths  of  the  Mariners  at  least  are 
I^i/g/is//,  and  which  shall  be  carried  directly  thence  to  the  said 
Lands.  Islands.  Plantatic^is,  Colonies,  Territories,  or  Places,  and 
from  no  other  Place  or  IMaccs  whatsoever  ;  any  Law,  fStatute,  or 
Usaj^e   to  the  contrary  notwithstanding  ; 

See  English  Statutes  at  Large. 


rol.dMAI,    rni,i(\-    OK    Ki]. 


<  M'K 


Jiul  the  Seas 
I\.in'4(ii>ni  of 
'tidencc  and 
lici-  Dcpeiul- 


cial 


and 


ad- 


Increasc  of 


Vooll 


cii  and 


X 


ivitfation 


making-  this 
liosc  phnita- 


s  and 


PI; 


ices 


^e  of    other 


it  from   and 


lOMsand 


SIX 


xlnct 
anv 


ion  or 
Land, 


his   Alajesty 
in  tlie  Pos- 


V/.7,    J. 


ill   be  bon 


rica 


a- 


huilt  .Ship- 
h'rst 
id  had 


day  ot 
snch 


ist  S 


sessions 
preventing 
stnnis ;  and 


It 


least  ar( 


to  th 


e  said 


laces,   and 
'Statute,  or 


II. 


TIIK    COr.OMAL    POLICY   OF    KCROPI-. 


From    Adam    S.mi 


ni  s 


W 


i.ALiii    oi'    Nation 


s.     |5(K)K     I\'.,    Cir.    Nil. 


I' 


AK  I' 


II. 


Ti 


w.  colony  < 


)i  a  ci\  1 


ot  a  waste  countr\-  or  ot 


lized  nation  which  takes  po 


ssession.  either 


easily    oi\e   ])lace   to   (he   new  settlers,  ad 
wealth  and  ,L;ieatiU'ss  than  anv  otlier  1 


one  so  thinly  inhal)ite(l.  that  the  natives 
vaiices   more   rapidlv   to 


TI 


le  Colonists  cairv  out  with  t 


uiinaii  soeiet\-. 
lein   a  knowledge  of  a'4-riculttire 


and  ol  other  useful  arts,  superior  to  what  can  oro^-  up  of  it 


accord  m   tlie  course  of  n 


s  own 


ian\-  centuries  amont 


sa\a'. 


mrous    nations. 


and   I 


)ar 


hey    carry    out  with    them.    t( 


suhordmation,  some  notion  of  the  reuular 


o.    the   habit   of 


pi, 


ice  m  their  own  countrv.  of  th 


e  s\stein  ol 


it,  and  of  a  i 


eiLiular  administration  of 


n)vermnent  whieh  takes 
aws  which  snp])(,|-ts 


justice 


establish 


somethino-  of  t!ie  sam-  kind  in  tl 


and   thev   iiat 


n  rally 


amono-  sayaire  and  barban 

and  ,i,r()vcrnment  is  still  slower  t 


le  new  settlement.      Hut 


att 


er 


aw    and 


)ns  nations,  the  natural  pro^rress  of  hiw 
lan   the  natural    jin^i^ress  of  arts 


L;';veriiment    hav< 


leeii    so   tar   establ 


is  I  led 


necessary  tor  their  protection.      ICverv   colonist    -et 
than  he  can  possibly  cultivate.      He   ha 
taxes  to  pay.      Xo  landlord   sh; 


s    more 


•s   no  rent,  and  scarce 


as  IS 
land 
any 


tl 


le  share  of  tl 


ires  with    hini  in  its  produce,  and 


le 


soverei^-n   is  conimonlv    but  a    trifle 


every  motne  to  render  ;is  n-reat 
thus  to  be  almost  entirely  1 
extensive,  that  with  all  I 


He    has 


as 


possible  a   pi-oduce,  which 


is 


lis  own. 


I]ut 


Ins  laiul  IS  commonly  so 


of  other  jjcople  whom  li 

it  produce  the  tenth  part  of  what  it 


is  eao^er,  therefore,  t( 
reward    them    with   tl 


lis  own  industry,  and  with  all  the  industry 
le  can  -et  to  employ,  he  can  seldom  make 

He 

i-om  all   (piarters.  and   to 


IS  ca[)able  of  jirociuci 


n<r. 


wa 


th 


lose   laborers   leave   him,    in   order  t 


collect  laborers  f 
le   most    liberal    waoes.      JJut   those    liberal 

soon   make 


ges,  joined  to   the  plenty  ami   cheapness  of   land 


selves,  and  to  reward. 


o    Deconie    landlords  th 


em- 


soon 

master 

diild 


with   eciual   liberality,  other  I, 


cave    them    tor    the 


Th 


same   reason   that  ti 


ie\- 


e  liberal  reward  of  labor 


loorers.  wjio 
■t't    their  first 


children,  during  the  tend 


encoura<res  marriaire. 


le 


er  years    of  infancy,  are   well    fed 


Tl 
and 


ftii 


SF,I,i:(TI(>XS. 


propcrlv  taken  cure  of,  and  when  tliev  are  L,M-n\vn  up,  the  vahie  of 
their  hihor  yreatly  overpays  their  niaintenanee.  W'iien  arri\e(l 
at  maturity,  the  hij^ii  py\cc  of  hil)or,  and  the  low  piice  of  huul, 
enalile  thi'ni  to  establish  themselves  in  the  same  manner  as  their 
fathers  did  belore  them. 

In  other  countries  rent  and  profit  eat  up  wacjes,  and  tlie 
two  superior  orders  of  people  oppress  llie  iiderior  one.  lint  in 
new  colonies  the  interest  of  the  t\v(i  superior  orders  ol)liL,''es  them 
to  treat  the  inferior  one  ^vith  more  j2;enerosit\  and  lunnanit\  ;  at 
least,  where  that  inferior  one  is  not  in  a  state  of  slavery.  Waste 
lands  of  the  [greatest  natural  iertility,  are  to  be  had  for  a  trille. 
'Jdie  increase  of  revenue  which  the  prf)prietor,  who  is  always  tlie 
undertaker,  expects  from  their  im[)roveinent,  constitutes  his  prolit ; 
whicii  in  these  circumstances  is  commonh'  \  er\-  !j,reat.  l>ut  this 
j^reat  proiit  cannot  be  made  without  em])lo\inL;'  the  labor  of  other 
people  in  clearing- and  cultivating-  the  land  ;  and  the  disproportion 
between  the  <freat  extent  of  the  land  and  the  small  number  of  the 
])eople,  which  C(»mmonlv  takes  place  in  new  colonies,  makes  it 
dillicult  tor  him  to  L;et  this  labor,  lie  does  not.  tlierefore,  dispute 
about  waives,  but  is  w  illiuij,"  to  emplo\'  labor  at  an\'  ])rice.  The 
hic^h  wa'^es  of  labor  encourage  population.  Tlie  cheaiaiess  and 
plentv  of  <4"ood  land  encouraue  im])ro\ement.  and  enable  the  pvo- 
|)rietor  to  pa\'  those  bi_<^h  washes.  In  those  waj^es  consists  almost 
the  whole  price  of  the  land  ;  and  thoui^h  they  are  hinh,  considered 
as  the  waujes  of  labor,  they  are  low.  considered  as  the  j^riceof  what 
is  so  verv  wduable.  What  encouraL^es  the  pro<4'ress  of  population 
and  improvement  encouray,es  that  of  real  wealth  and  _i;reatness. 

The  prof^ress  of  many  of  the  ancient  (ireek  colonies  towards 
wealth  and  greatness  seems  accordin^^ly  to  have  been  verv  rapid. 
In  the  course  of  a  century  or  two  several  of  them  appear  to  have 
rivalled,  and  even  to  have  surpassed,  their  mother  cities.  Svra- 
cuse  and  A;_iri;4entum  in  Sicily.  Tarentnm  and  Locri  in  Italv, 
E]-)hesus  and  Miletus  in  Lesser  Asia,  appear  bv  all  accounts  to 
have  been  at  least  ecjual  to  an\'  of  the  cities  of  ancient  Greece. 
Though  posterior  in  their  estal)lishment,  yet  all  the  arts  of  reiuie- 
ment,  philosophy,  poetry,  and  eloquence,  seem  to  ha\e  been  cul- 
tivated as  early,  and  to  ha\e  been  impro\ed  as  highlv,  in  them,  as 
in  an\  [jart  of  the  mother  country.  The  schools  of  the  two  oldest 
Greek  phil(;so[,thers.  tlujse  of  Thales  and  l*\  thagoras,  were  estab- 
lished, it  is  remarkable,  not  in  ancient  Greece,  but  the  one  in  an 
Asiatic,  the   other  in  an  Italian  colonv.     All   those  colonies  had 


est 

ba 

h: 

of 

in 

int 

S( 

m; 

coi 

e\( 

qu 


Col.dNIAI,    I'OI.K'V    OF    KlRol'i: 


u.'  v;iluc  or 
■11   arrived 


ot 


and 


r  as  their 


ami 


tl 


iiiLa's 


Hut 

tl 


ic 


in 


icin 


naiiitv  ;  at 
V.  \Vastc 
trillc. 
tl 


or  a 


il\va\  s 


ic 


Ills 


)rolit 


But  th 


is 


or  () 


f  otl 


ler 


;:)r()|)()rti<)ii 


ii)cr  (I 


ftl 


le 


,  makes  it 
re,  dispute 


rice. 


Tl 


le 


iDuess  and 


t! 


le 


■Q- 


ists  almost 


lered 


•onsK 


ceot  what 
)iilation 


)o 


[eatness. 

's  towards 
erv  rapid. 

[ir  to  have 
Sy  ra- 
it; 


111 


UV 


:counts  to 
Greece. 


ol  relme- 


lieeii  cu 


li  them,  as 


iwo  o 


lere  es 


Idest 
tab- 


pne   m  an 
)iiies  had 


established  themsehes  in  countries  inhabited   by  sava^-e  and   bar- 


arous  nations.  \\  ho  easily  'j^avc    place 


to  tl 


le  new  st'tllc-is. 


I' 


lev 


had  plintv  ot'Li-ood  land,  and  as  tlu'y  were  altogether  inde|)endent 
ot'tlie  mother  citv.  tlie\-  w x'le  at  lilierty  to  maiia;4e  their  own  atlairs 
in  the  wa\  that  the\-  indeed  was  most  suitable  to  their  own 
interest. 

The  liistoiN  of  the  Koman  colonies  is  by  no  nieaiu.  so  brilliant. 
Some  of  them,  indeed,  such  as  Idoieiice.  ha\e  in  the  course  of 
mam  a^es.  and  alter  the  fall  of  the  mother  city,  n'rowii  lip  to  be 
Cousicierable  States.  But  tin-  pro^jiess  of  no  one  of  them  seems 
ever  to  have   be 


en  \ei\   rapid 


T 


ie\    w  t'le  a 


11 


^tahllshed  m  con- 


UK'red   pro\inces. 


bet 


ore. 


which    in  most   cases  had    been  iiilly  inhabited 
The    (|uaiitit\-    of   land    assigned    to    each    colonist    was 

the  colonv  was  not  iiidei)er.(lent. 


seldom  ver\'  considerable,  am 
th 


as 


e\   were    not 


alwavs  at  liiiert\'  to  manai^e  their  own  atiairs  m 
the  \\  a\'  that  tliev  iud;4e<l  \\  as  most  snitalile  to  their  own  interest. 
In  tlic  pleiit\'  of '^ood  land  the  b.uropean  colonies  eslaldished  in 
America  and  tiie  Wf^l  Indies  resemble,  and  e\en  ^leatK  surpass, 
those  of  ancient  tjreece.  In  their  ilependeiicy  upon  the  mother 
State  the\-  resemble  those  (jf  ancient  Rome  ;  but  their  i^reat  distance 
from  I'Lurope  has  in  all  of  them  alleviated  more  or  less  the  etVects 
of  this  depeiideiic\'.  Their  situation  has  |)laced  them  less  in  the 
view  and  less  in  the  power  of  their  mother  comitrv.  In  pur- 
Siiiivj,"  their  inlerest  tiieir  own  waw  their  conduct  has.  U|;)oii 
nian\'  occasions,  been  o\erlooked.  either  because  not  know 
or  not  understood  in  Europe;  and  upon  some  occasions  it  has 
\-    sutllred    and    submitted    to.   because    their    distance 


n 


)eeii 


fairl 


rendered  it  dillicult  to  ix'strain  it.  I'2\en  the  \i(dent  and  arl)itrarv 
government  of  Spain  has.  u])on  many  occasions,  been  oblij^ed  to 
recall  or  soiteii  the  orders  w  hich    luul   been  ^ixen   for  the  <j,"o\ern- 


ment  of  her  C(donies.  for  fear  of  a   ''"eneral    insurrection. 


T 


le 


progress  oi   all  the  European   colonies  in  wealth,  pcjpulation.  and 
improvement,  has  accordin^h  been  \er\-  (^reat. 

'I'he  crown  of  Spain.  b\-  its  share  of  the  j^oUl  andsiher.  deri\ed 
fiome   re\eiuie  from    its  colonies,  from   the   moment  of  their   iiist 


estal)lishmeiit. 


It    was  a   re\einie.  too.  of   a    nature  to  excite   i 


n 


human  a\  iditv  the  most  extravagant  exiiectations  of  still   greater 
riches.      The    Spanish    colonies,    therefore,    from   the  moment  of 


their  tirst  establishment,  attracted  \erv  nuich  the  atteiit 


ion  ol 


tl 


leir 


mother  Country  ;  w  hile  those  of  the  other  European  nations  were 
for  a  lono-   time  in  a  great  measure   neglected.     The  former  did 


8 


SF.F.r.CTIOXS. 


not,  perhaps,  tlirive  the  hcUcr  in   consequence  of  tliis  attention  : 
nor  the  hitter  the  worse  in  consequence  of  this   net^lect.      In  ])ro- 
portion  to  the  I'xfcnt  of  the  country  whicii   thev  in  some    measure 
possess,  tlie  Spanish  colonies  are  considered  as  less  popnlous  and 
thriving;  than  those  of  ahuosL  an\'  other   I^uropean  nation.     The 
])rogn'ss   e\c'n   of  the   Spanish    colonies,    ho\vc\er,  in   population 
and  impid\ement,  has  certainly  been  ver\'  rapid  and  ver\-  ureat. 
The  city  of  Lima,  founded  since  the  coiuinest,  is   represented   in 
Ulloa,   as  containint^  iltty  thousand  inhabitants  near  thirty  years 
a<jo.      C^uito,  \yhich  had  been  but  a  miserable  hamlet  of  Indians, 
is  represented  by  the  same  author  as  in  his  time  ecpialh' popnlous. 
Gemelli  Carreri,  a  ];)retcnded  trayeller,  it  is  said,  indeed,  but  uhu 
seems  eyerywhere   to   haye  \yritten   upon   extreme  ijood    informa- 
tion, represents  the  city  of  Mexico  as  containini;-  a  hundred  thou- 
sand iidiabitants  ;  a  number  \yhich.  in  spite  of  all  the  exa<j;'<^crations 
of  the  Spanish  \yriters,  is,  probably,  luore  than  li\e  times  (greater 
than  what  it  contained  in  the  time  of  Montezuma.     These  inmi- 
bers  exceed  jjjrcatly  those  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadel])hia. 
the  three  ti^reatest  cities  of  the  En;4iish  colonies.      Hei'ore  the  con- 
quest of  the  Spaniards  there  wei  j  no  cattle   lit  for  drau;4ht  either 
in   Mexico   or   Peru.       The  lama  was  their  only  beast  of  burden, 
antl  its  strength  seems  to  haye  lieen  a  good  deal  infeiior  to  that  of 
a  common  ass.     The  plough  was  unknown  among  them.     Thev 
were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  iron.      They  had  no  coined   money, 
nor  any  established  instrument  of  ccMumerce  of  any  kind.     Their 
commerce  was  carrie<l  on    by  baiter.      A  sort  of  wooden  spado 
^yas    their  principal    instrument    of  agriculture.       Sharp    stones 
seryed  thein  for  kniyes  and  hatchets  to  cut  with  ;  fish-bones  and 
the  hard  sinews  of  certain  animals  served  them  for  needles  to  sew 
with  ;  and  these  seem  to  haye  been  their  principal  instruments  of 
trade.      In  this  state  of  things  it  seems  impossible,  that   either  of 
those    empires  could   have  been  so   nuich   improved  or    so    well 
cultiyated  as  at  present,  when  they  are  plentifully  furnished   with 
all  sorts  of  European  cattle,  and  when  the  use    of   iron,  of  the 
plough,  and  of  many  of  the  arts  of  Europe,  has  been  introduced 
among  them.     J)ut  the  populousness  of  every  country  must  be  in 
proportion  to  the  degree  of  its  improyement  and  cultivation.      In 
spite  of  the  cruel  destruction   of  the  nati\es   which    followed   the 
conquest,  these  t\y(j  great  empires  are.  probably,  more  populou- 
now  than  they  ever  were  before  ;  and  the  people  are  surely  verv 
diflerent ;    for    we    must    acknowledge,    I    apprehend,    that    the 


I 

n 


(•(M.oxiAi,  roi.K  V  OK  F.rkor'i': 


his  attention  : 

IcCt.        Ill    ))!•()- 

DUic    mcMsiiro 
populous  :uul 
nation.     Tilt' 
n  population 
d  very  ijrcat. 
cprescntccl  in 
1"  thirty  years 
■t  of  Indians, 
illy  ])opidous. 
cc'd,  hut  who 
ooil    intornia- 
undrcd  thou- 
'xaij  Iterations 
times  "greater 
These  luun- 
I'hiladelphia. 
'tore  the  con- 
■au;Tht  either 
st  of  hurden. 
ior  to  that  of 
hem.     Thev 
ined   mone\-. 
cind.      Their 
ooden  spailc 
Sharp    stones 

i-hones  and 
,'edles  to  sew 
struments  of 

at   either  of 

or  so  well 
nished  with 
iron,  of  the 
1  introduced 

must  be  in 
ivation.  In 
olio  wed  the 
re  populou- 

surely  verv 
i,    that    the 


Spanish    Creoles    are    in    many    resjjects    superior  to  the  ancient 
Indians, 

Alter  the  settlemi'nts  of  the  Spaniards,  that  of  tlie  Portuj^uesc 
in  r>ra/.il  is  the  oldest  of  any  luMojjean  nation  in  America.  Hut 
as  tor  a  hiu'j;  time  alter  the  lirst  discovery,  neither  i^old  nor  silver 
niines  were  found  in  it,  and  as  it  atlbrded,  upon  that  account, 
little  or  no  revenue  to  the  crown,  it  was  for  a  louij^  time  in  a  <j^reat 
measme  neL;lecled  ;  and  durini^'  this  state  of  neglect  it  tj;iew  up  to 
be  a  ,L,n'eat  and  powerful  colony.  While  PortUi^al  was  under  the 
dominion  of  Spain,  Ura/il  was  attacked  hv  the  Dutch,  who  LJ^ot 
possession  of  se\en  of  the  t'onrteen  provinces  into  which  it  is 
divided.  Thev  expectt'd  s  )on  tf)  coiKjuer  the  other  seven,  \v  hen 
Portuijal.  recovered  its  independencv  hv  the  elevation  f)f  thefamilv 
of  Bra'^an/.a  to  the  throne.  The  Dutch  then,  as  enemies  to  the 
Spaniards,  became  fiiends  to  the  Portuguese,  who  were  likewise 
the  enemies  of  the  Spaniards,  'i  hev  aLjreed,  therefoie,  to  leave 
that  part  of  Hra/.il,  which  they  had  not  concpiered,  to  the  kiuLJ  of 
Portugal  w  Jio  aLi^iX'ed  to  leave  that  part  which  thev  had  concpieied 
to  them,  as  a  matter  not  worth  (lis])utin^'  about  with  such  ^ood  allies. 
])Ut  the  Dutch  !^()V  ei'nment  soon  bei^an  to  oppress  the  i*orlU!:^nese 
colonists,  who.  insteadofamusiuL;"  themselves  with  complaints,  took 
arms  aj^ainst  their  new  masters,  and  bv  their  own  valor  ami  reso- 
lution, with  the  connivance  indeed,  but  without  anv  avowed 
assistance  from  the  mother  country,  drove  them  out  of  Pra/.il. 
Tlie  Dutch,  thereibre,  lindiuL;-  it  impossible  to  keep  anv  part  of  the 
country  to  themselves,  were  contented  that  it  should  be  entirely 
restored  to  the  crown  of  P<)ilni;al.  In  this  colonv  there  are  said 
to  be  more  than  six  hundred  thousand  people,  either  Portuguese 
or  descentled  from  Portuguese,  Creoles,  mulattoes,  and  a  mixed 
race  between  i*ortuguese  and  13razilians.  Xo  one  colonv  in 
America  is  supposed  to  contain  so  great  a  number  of  peoj^le  of 
European  extraction. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  during  the  greater  t)art  of 
the  sixteenth  century  Spain  and  Portugal  were  the  two  great 
naval  powers  upon  the  ocean  ;  tor  though  the  commerce  of  \'enice 
extended  to  every  part  of  Euro]x-,  its  lleets  had  scarce  ever  sailed 
beyonil  tiie  Mediterr.-mean.  The  Spaniards,  in  virtue  of  the  lirst 
discovery,  claimed  all  America  as  their  own  ;  and  though  thev 
could  not  iiinder  so  great  a  naval  jjower  as  that  of  Portugal  from 
settling  in  Brazil,  such  was,  at  that  time,  the  terror  of  their  name, 
tliat  the  greater  part  of  the   other   nations  of  Euiope  were  afraid 


ll: 


I 


M 


lO 


si:i,i:cii(»Ns. 


to  establish  tlicinsclv  cs  in  aiiv  otliur  ]-)art  of  that  fj^tvat  coiitiiuMit. 
'I'he  I-'iviich,  wlio  attt'ini)tt.'(l  ti)  settle  in  I'luiida.  \\  imv  all  imir- 
(liTctl  hv  till'  Spaniards.  Hut  the  deeleiision  ol"  the  iia\al  power 
olthis  latter  nation,  in  eonsecpienee  ot"  the  defeat  or  niisearria;^e 
ol,  what  the\'  called,  their  Inxineihie  Armada.  \\  hieh  happened 
towards  tlu-  end  of  the  sixteenth  centni\ .  |nit  it  onl  ot'theii' power 
to  ohstiuel  any  lon^i^r  the  settlements  of  the  other  ICnropean 
nations.  In  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  theret'ore.  the 
I'^M^Iisli.  French,  Dutch,  Danes,  and  Swedes,  all  the  ^reat  nations 
who  had  aM\-  ports  upon  the  ocean,  attempted  to  make  some  set- 
tlements in  the  nesv  world. 

The  .Swedes  established  themsi'lves  in  New  Jersey  ;  and  the 
numbi'r  of  J^wedish  families  still  to  be  t'ouiid  there,  sulhciently 
demonstrates,  that  this  colonv  was  \er\'  likelv  to  prosper,  had  it 
been  protected  by  the  mother  country.  iJul  bein^'  neglected  l\v 
Sweden,  it  was  soon  swallowed  up  l>\-  the  Dutch  colony  of  New 
York,  which  again,  in  ^()'J-[-  iell  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Enijlish. 

The  small  islands  of  St.  Thomas  and  Santa  Cm/  are  the  only 
countries  in  the  new  world  that  have  e\er  been  possessed  by  the 
Danes.  These  little  settlements  too  were  under  the  ;j,()\  ernment 
of  an  exclusive  companw  which  liad  the  sole  right,  both  (jf  pur- 
chasing the  surplus  protluce  of  the  colonists,  and  of  supj^K  ing 
them  with  such  goods  of  other  countries  as  the\'  wanted,  and 
which,  therefore,  both  in  its  purchases  and  sales,  had  not  onlv  the 
power  of  o|)pressing  them,  but  the  greatest  tem[)tation  to  do  so. 
The  govermnent  of  an  exclusive  companv  of  merchants  is,  per- 
haps, the  worst  of  all  governments  tor  anv  country  whatever.  It 
was  n(jt,  however,  able  to  stop  altogether  the  progress  of  these 
cohniies.  though  it  remlered  it  more  slow  and  languitl.  The  kite 
king  of  Deimiark  dissobed  this  com|xm\'.  and  since  that  time  the 
])rosperity  of  these  colonies  has  been  very  great. 

The  Dutch  settlements  in  the  West,  as  well  as  those  in  the  East 
Intlies,  were  originalh'  j)ut  under  the  go\ernment  of  an  exchisive 
companv.  The  progress  of  some  of  them,  therefore,  though  it 
has  been  considerable,  in  comparison  with  that  of  almost  any 
country  that  has  been  long  peopled  and  established,  lias  been 
huiguid  and  slow  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  greater  part  of 
new  colonies.  The  colonv  of  Surinam,  though  ver\  considerable, 
is  still  interior  to  the  greater  part  of  the  sugar  colonies  of  the 
other  European  nations.     The  colony  of  Xova   Belgia,  now  di- 


(■(»i.( iM  \i    I't ti  i(  N   ( •!•   i-rut ii'i;. 


11 


LMt  contiiu'iit. 
vvr  ,ili  imir- 
li.i\;il  power 
1"  misc;irri;i<4-e 
».li  li;i|)|)L'iic(l 
il  their  j)()\\  cr 
L-r  JOiuopiMii 
.licrt'l'Drc.  the 
iLi^rcat  nations 
lUc  some  sct- 

'Cy  ;  and  the 
•.  snIlieientU 
o.sper,  had  it 
K'ulccted  l.iy 
ony  of  Xcw 
nion    of   the 

live  tlie  onlv 
cssed  by  tlic 
i;(>\ennnent 
'oth  (jf  pnr- 
f  supplying- 
vanted,  and 
not  onlv  the 
)n  to  do  so. 
nits  is.  per- 
Kile\er.     It 

s   of  tliese 
The  late 

t  time  the 

in  the  East 
exclusive 
though  it 
most  any 
has  been 
:er  part  of 
siderable, 
es  of  the 
,  now  di- 


vided into  the  two  provinces  of  Xew  ^'ork  and  New  Jersey, 
would  probably  have  soon  become  coiisiderabK-  too.  eVen  tlionuh 
it  had  remained  under  the  _<,fo\  ernment  ot"  the  Dutch.  The 
plenty  and  cheapiK-^s  of  -nod  land  are  sucli  powerfid  causes  ot 
prospeiit\.  tliat  tlie  \ery  worst  -on  ei-nnu'iit  is  scarce  cajKibk'  ot 
checkiii'4  alto'^ether  tlie  eliicacy  of  their  oi)eration.  The  -reat 
distance  toi.  from  the  mother  country  would  enal'le  the  colonists 
to  evade  more  or  less,  bv  suui--linL;-.  the  monopoly  which  the 
Comp:m\-  enjoxed  a-aiust  them.  At  present  the  company  allow  sail 
Dutch  slui)s  to  trade  to  Sminam  upon  paying-  two  ami  a  halt"  ])er 
cent.  ui)ou  the  \ahie  ot"  their  cargo  for  a  license;  and  only  re- 
serves to  itself  e\clu>i\  eh  the  diiect  tiade  Iron)  Africa  to  Ameri- 
ca, which  consists  alm<'st  entirely  in  the  slave  trade,  'i'liis 
relaxation  in  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the  compan\  is  probably 
the  principal  cause  ot'that  degree  of  ])rosperity  which  that  colony 
at  present  enjo\s.  Curai;oa  and  Eustatia,  the  two  jnincipal 
islanils  belonging  to  the  Dutch,  are  free  ports  open  to  the  ships 
of  all  nations;  ami  this  tVeedom,  in  the  midst  of  better  colonies 
whose  p(!rt:-  are  open  to  those  of  one  nation,  oid\'.  has  been  the 
great  causi'  of  the  prosperit\'  of  those  two  barren  islands. 

'J'he  I'rench  colon v  of  Canatla  was.  (.luring  the  greater  part  of 
the  last  centur\  .  and  some  part  of  the  present,  imdcr  the  go\ern- 
rocnt  of  an  exclusi\e  company.  I'nder  .so  unfavorable  an  admin- 
istration its  progress  was  necessarilv  very  slow  in  comparison 
with  that  of  other  new  colonies;  but  it  became  nnich  more  rapid 
when  this  companv  was  dissolved  altei"  the  fdl  of  what  is  called 
the  Mississippi  scheme.  When  the  l-^nglish  got  possession  of 
this  countr\'.  thev  t'ound  in  it  near  double  the  munber  of  inhabi- 
tunts  w  hich  hither  Charlevoix  had  assigned  to  it  between  twenty 
and  lhirt\-  years  before.  That  Jesuit  had  tiavelled  o\er  the  whole 
countrw  and  luul  no  inclination  to  lepresent  it  as  less  considerable 
than  it  really  was. 

The  French  colonv  of  St.  Domingo  was  est;d>lished  bv  pirates 
and  tVeebooters,  who,  tor  a  long  time,  neither  retpiired  the  pro- 
tection, nor  acUnowledged  the  authoritv,  of  France  ;  anil,  when 
that  race  of  banditti  Iiecame  so  i\\v  citizens  as  to  acknowledge  this 
authoritv,  it  was  tor  a  long  time  necessarv  to  exercise  it  with  \erv 
great  gentleness.  During  this  period  the  population  and  im- 
provement of  this  colony  incieased  \er\'  tast.  IC\en  the  opjires- 
sion  of  the  exclusive  company,  to  which  it  was  for  some  time 
subjected,  with  all    the  other    colonies    of  France,  though  it  no 


12 


Sr.l.KCllD.NS. 


(lotiht  iclnrdi'd.  Iiail  un\  lici-ii  ;il»K'  U>  slop  its  pro'^rcss  .'iltf)Ljc'tlici 
Tllf  coiiist'  III'  its  prospriilv  iclmiu'il  ;is  soon  ;is  it  \\;is  irlicsi 
fioin  that  oppri'ssidii.  It  is  now  tlu'  most  import, ml  of  l! 
sircar  colonics  of  llic  West  Indies,  and  its  produce  is  said  to  1 
j^ri'atcr  tiian  tiiat  ol"  ail  the  lOni^lisli  sn'_;ar  colonii-s  put  toMcthc! 
Till'  other  sn^ar  colonics  of  Fi'ancc  aie  in  t;cneral  all  vei 
tln"i\  in'_j. 

lint  thi-re  arc  no  colonies  of  which  the  proofless  has  ht'iai  inni 
rapid  than  that  of  the  I'liiLllish  in  North  America. 

Picnt\'  of  '^ood  land  and  liberty  to  nianaiLfc  their  own  allai 
their  own  wav,  seem  to  he  the  two  ^leat  causes  of  the  prospei'Ii 
of  all  new  colonies. 

In  the  plent\  of  l;'(>'>(I  land,  the  l^ii'^lisli  colonics  of  \oi' 
America,  though,  no  do'uht,  \crv  ahundanlh'  ])rovided.  are.  how. 
ever,  inferior  to  those  of  the  Spaniards  and  l*ortnL;iK'se.  and  ii- 
superior  to  some  (jf  those  possessed  1)\  the  l'"rench  hefore  tlu-  I  i: 
war.  ]?nt  the  jjolilical  institutions  of  the  Ihi'^lish  colonies  ha\ 
been  moic  favorable  to  the  jnipiovenR'nt  and  culti\ati(;n  of  tli;- 
land  than  those  of  an\'  of  the  other  three  nations. 

I'irst,  the  en;4rossill^■  of  unculti\ate(l  land,  though  it  has  b\-  n 
means  been  prcNcntcd  altogether,  haslieiai  moiv  rcslraiiU'd  in  ili 
Eni;lish  colonics  than  in  anv  other.  'l"he  colon\-  law  which  im- 
poses upon  every  proprietor  the  obliu;ation  of  improviii<^  an, 
cultivatin;^.  within  a  limited  time,  a  certain  proportion  of  hi- 
lands,  antl  which,  in  case  of  failiue,  declaies  those  neglected  lami- 
grantable  to  any  other  ]:)erson  ;  thoui^h  it  has  not.  jicrhaps,  beci, 
ver\-  strictlv  executed,  has.  however,  had  some  cll'ect. 

.Secondl\',  in  I'ennsvlvania  there  is  no  right  of  primogciiituri., 
and  lands,  like  movables,  are  dividetl  ecpially  amon<f  all  i'/x 
children  of  the  family.  In  three  of  the  ]Dro\inces  of  New  Eiiu- 
land  the  oldest  has  only  a  double  share,  as  in  the  Mosaical  law. 
Though  in  those  proxinces,  therefore,  too  i^ix'at  a  cpiantitv  of  laiiii 
should  sometimes  be  engrossed  bv  a  particular  indi\i(Iual,  it  i- 
likelv,  in  the  course  of  a  generation  or  two,  to  be  snilicientiv 
divided  again.  In  the  other  English  colonies,  indeed,  the  ri'^l;; 
of  primogeniture  takes  place,  as  in  the  law  of  England.  But  ir. 
all  th.e  I'.nglish  colonies  the  tenure  of  the  lands,  which  are  u\'. 
held  b\'  free  socage,  facilitates  alienation,  and  the  grantee  of  anv 
extensive  ti'act  of  land  genei"allv  finds  it  for  his  interest  t 
alienate,  as  fast  as  he  can,  the  greater  part  of  it.  reser\  In. 
only    a     small     quit-rent.        In     the     Spanish     and    Portugucn 


col(l 

in  tl 

lionl 

cHcf 

are 

lanii 

law  I 

esta 

ate  (I 

eithl 

all  i| 

ure 

col< 

Spci 

and 
the 
eng 
T\v 
stru> 
the 
mo- 
th is 
"wlii" 
emp 
mor 
like 
any 
is  n 


n 


■f 


(i)ln\l.\l.    I'dlKV   OF    rruni-E. 


13 


rcss  .'iltoLTc'tlui 

i|)i>rl.iiit  of  (1, 
Ci'  is  s;ii(|  to  I 
L-s  put  to'^ctlic  1 
-"lu'ial    ;ill    vi! 

Ii;is  hi't'ii  mil! 

I'ir  own    ;ill;iii. 
the  piospciil 

)ilic's  (if  Xoir 
idc'd.  ail.'.  I)()\\. 
'^iii'sc.  and  H' ■ 
l)clor(.'  the  \:i\. 
colonics  ha\ 
i\ati(jn   o|'  thi' 

;h  it  has  li\-  n 
stiaini-d  in  il, 
iw  which  iiii- 
iipi-o\'ino-  an. 
portion  of  lii- 
c^di'ctcd  land- 
HM-haps,  hcci. 
cl. 

rimoiLjc'nituri. 

Hont^r    all    Vx 

>i'  New   Ell- 

^losaical   law, 

antity  of  laiiii 

li\i(!ual,  it   i- 

•c  siitlicicnth 

cd.  the    ri'^i.: 

uul.      But  i:; 

Ahicli   are  ;ii! 

lantee  of  air, 

s    interest   1 

it.    ieser\  in.' 

Portugiic.H 


colonies,  what  is  called  the  ri'4ht  ot"  Majora//o'  takes  place 
in  the  succession  of  all  those  yreat  estates  to  which  '  any  title  of 
honor  is  ainu'vi'd.  Such  estates  yo  all  to  one  ptTson.  and  are  in 
effect  iiilailid  and  uiiaiiiMialiK'.  The  I'liaich  colonii-s.  indeed, 
are  sul'lict  to  tlu'  custom  of  Paris,  which,  in  the  inheritance  ot 
land,  i^  iiiiich  niMie  t.iNoraMc  to  the  younger  children  than  the 
law  of  iCnuland.  Ihit.  in  the  i'leiich  colonies,  if  any  pait  of  an 
esttile.  held  l'\  tlii'  nohle  tenuii'  of  chivalry  and  homaj^e.  is  alien- 
ated, it  Is.  tor  a  limited  lime,  suhject  to  tlie  li^lil  of  ie(lem|)liou, 
either  \>\  the  lieii'  o  I"  I  lie  siipei  ior  or  hy  the  heir  oithe  famil\  ;  and 
all  thi-  lar'_;e>t  instates  ol"  the  comitry  are  held  hy  siicli  iioMe  ti'ii- 
Ul'es.  which  lu'cessaiih  emharrass  alienation.  Uut.  in  a  new 
Coloiiv,  a  i^reat  uncultivated  estate  is  liUely  to  oe  much  more 
gpcedih'  divided  1)\'  alienation  than  hy  succession.  The  plenty 
and  chi'apness  of  L;ood  land,  it  has  alreadv  heen  ohserved,  are 
the  principal  causes  of  the  rapid  piosperity  of  new  colonies.  'I'he 
engrossiii'^-  ot'  land,  in  etlect.  destid\s  this  plent\  and  cheapness. 
Tile  eii'^rossin^df  uncultivated  land.  Insides.  is  the  i;reatisl  ob- 
struction to  its  improvement.  l>ut  the  Labor  that  is  emploved  in 
the  ini|)ro\  inieiit  and  culti\ali(»n  ol"  land  allbrds  the  j^realest  and 
most  valuable  produce  to  the  societN .  'I'he  proiluce  of  labor,  in 
this  case,  pays  not  oiilv  its  (nvn  wa;4es.  and  the  prolit  of  the  stock 
which  emploNs  it.  but  the  icnt  ol"  the  land  too  upon  which  it  is 
em|)loyed.  The  labor  of  the  ICnylish  colonists,  therefore,  bein<j; 
mori'  employed  in  the  improvement  and  cultisatioii  of  land,  is 
likely  to  al]"ord  a  greater  antl  more  valuable  produce,  than  that  of 
any  of  the  other  three  nations,  which,  bv  the  en<4rossin;4-  of  land, 
is  more  <n'  less  diverted  toward  other  cmplovments. 

Thirdly,  the  labor  of  the  Enf;;lish  colonists  is  not  onl\-  likelv  to 
aflbr<l  a  -greater  and  more  \aluable  produce,  but,  in  conseciuence 
of  the  moderation  of  their  taxes,  a  t;-reater  proportion  ot  this  prod- 
uce belongs  to  themselves,  which  they  may  store  up  and  emi)lov 
in  puttinjjj  into  motion  a  still  {greater  (piaiititv  of  labor.  The 
Enj^^lish  colonists  have  never  yet  contributed  an\  thin,L,Mowards  the 
defence  of  the  mother  country,  or  towards  the  support  of  its  civil 
government.  They  themselves,  on  the  contrary,  have  hitherto 
been  defended  almost  entirely  at  the  expense  of  the  mother 
country.  IJut  the  expense  of  fleets  and  armies  is  out  of  all  pro- 
portion greater  than  the  necessary  expense  of  civil  go\ernment. 


s 


'Jus  Miijoratus. 


H 


m;i,i;(  iioNs. 


'I'lu-  expense  1)1' llu'ir  own  ei\il  l;i 'V  riimicnt  lias  ;il\\  .i\  •>  ln-i-n  vei  \ 
nuMlerate.      It  has  ;^i'nera!l\   been  eoiilineil   tn  what  was  neccssarv 
l«ir  |)a\iii'4  cnnipi'tent    sahiiies  [a  ilie   ^dx  I'lnm.  tn  tlu'  jmh^es.  aiii! 
U)  some  olhei'  ollieers  (»!'  poliee.  ami   loi'  maintaining'  a  tew  of  thi 
niosl:  iisel'iil  pnhlie  works.      The  expensi-  of  the  civil  estahlishinem 
of  Massaeiiusells    Hay.  l)elore  thi'  coninieiicenicnt  of  thi-  ]iieseii' 
<listuihances,  nsril  to   i)e  Iml  ahont    L'lS.ooo  a  war;   that  ol'  New 
J  lanipshire  and   l^hode  Island,   L'^.^oo  I'ai  h  ;   that  ol' C'onni-eticnt, 
X'4,oo() ;    that    ol'    New    \nvk    and    I'eiiiisyh  ania.    t'.|o<)f)  each: 
that  of  New  Jeisey,  .fi  ,J(k;  ;  that  of"  \'ir<,nnii  and  Sonlh   Caro- 
lina, fS, ()()()  each.      The  ci\  il  estahlisiniients  of  Nova  Scotia   and 
(ieor<j;ia  arc  ])artly  snpported  hy  an    annual  ^Tant  of  I'ai  lianicnt. 
lint  Nova  Scotia  pays,  besides,  ahont  f^.oocj  a  year  towards  tlu 
j)uhlic  expenses  of  tiie  coloin  :  and  (Jeorj^ia  aliont  .L'j,S(J()  a  \eai. 
All  the  dill'i-rt'nt  ei\  il   estalilishnu-nts  in    North  .America,  in  shoit, 
cxclnsive  of  tiiose  of  .Mar\land  and  North   C"ai"oIina.  of  which  iic 
exact  account  has  been  j^ot.  did  not.  hefori-  the  commencement  oi 
the    present  disturbances,   cost  the   inhabitants  above    £6.[.'joo  a 
year;  an  ever-memorable  example  at  how  small  an  expense  thrii' 
millions  of  |)eople   may  not  only  be  ;4o\erni'd,  but  well   i^oNcrned. 
The   most    impoitant    part  of  the  expense  of  !^n)\  ei  innenl,  indei'd, 
that    of  defence    and    protection,    has   constantly   fallen    upon  thr 
mother  countr\'.     The  ceremonial,  too,  of  the  ci\il  government  in 
the    colonies,    upon    the   reception    of  a    new  <4o\  ernor.  upon   the 
openin;^"  of  a  new  a.ssemblv.  etc..  llionnh  sulliciently  decent,  is  not 
accompanied  with,  any  expensixe   pomp  or  parade.      Their  eccle- 
siastical L(ovenunent   is   conducted    upon    a    plan    ecpialh    fru<i^al. 
Tithes  are   ind<nown  amon^-  them  ;  and  their  cler<iy,  who  are  far 
from    beinu"   numerous,   are    maintained    either   bv    moderate   sti- 
pends,    or   bv   the    voluntary   contributions  of   the    people.      The 
[)ower   of   Spain   and    PortULjal,   on    the    contrary,   derives   sonic 
support    from    the    taxes    levied    upon    their    colonies.      France, 
indeed,    has    never    drawn     any   considerable     rexenue    from    \\> 
colonies,  the    taxes    which    it    levies  upon  them  beini.;  j^cncrallv 
spent    amono-    them.      But    the    colony  government   of   all    these 
three  nations  is  conducted  upon   a   much    more  expensive    plan 
and     is    accompanied     with     a     much     more     expensive     cere- 
monial.       The    sums    spent     upon     the     reception     of    a     new 
viceroy    of    Peru,     for    example,    have    frequently    been     enor- 
mous.     .Such  ceremonials  are  not  only  real  taxes  paid  by  the  rich 
colonists  upon  those  particular  occasions,  but  they  serve   to  ir.tin- 


as 


'9 

i 


(  ( ii  I  iM  \i,  I'oi  \i\  di'  I'.rKoii:, 


J^ 


ays  lii'i'ii  vcrv 

\v;is  ncccssaiv 

lie  jii(l;4c.s.  aiui 

<;  a  few  of  till 

(.•stiiMisluntMit 

•  )t"  tlu-  prosciit 

;   tlial  (if  Xcw 

f  CoiiiK'Cticiit. 

■f.j,5()f)  each  ; 

1   Soiilli   Carii- 

<\A  Scotia   ami 

)t'  I'ai  liainc'iii. 

11"  towards  tin 

L'j,5oo  a  year. 

.'lica,  ill  short, 

,  of  w  liicli  nil 

mciux'iiK'iit  oi 

ivc    {!()\.'ji)o  a 

cxprnsi'  tiirii' 

kL'll    j^oNcnu'd, 

iineiil.  iiidc't'd. 

Icii    upon  tlu; 

;ovcniincnt  in 

lor.  upon   llu' 

decent,  is  not 

riieir  ecele- 

liialU    frnj^al. 

,  who  are  far 

moderate   sti- 

ieo|)le.      Thi' 

lerives    soinr 

s.       I'rance. 

ue    from    its 

n;4  j^eneraUv 

of  all    these 

jeiisive    plan 

,'iisive     cere- 

of    a     new 

been     enor- 

(1  hv  the  rich 

rve   to  intro- 


duce ainonj;  tlu'ni  the  hahit  of  vanity  and  expense  upon  all  other 
occasions.  'I'lus  aie  not  only  very  ^riexoiis  occasional  taxes,  hnt 
thcv  contril'Utc  to  c^taiilish  perpetual  taxes  of  tin.'  same  kind  still 
more  ;4rie\  oils  ;  the  luinniiN  la\(.s  ot'piixale  lu\iiry  and  extiava- 
gaiue.  In  tin-  cdIcpiius  ol'ail  thnsr  thri'c  nations  tnd.  the  I'CcKsi- 
Altical  '4ii\  ti'iinuiil  is  cxtieiiK'lx  ()|)pressi\  e.  Tithes  take  place 
in  all  "f  them,  and  are  le\  ied  w  ith  the  utmost  i  ij^oi-  in  those  of 
Spain  and  roilu^al.  All  of  tlu'iii  besides  are  oppressed  with  a 
niimcioiis  lace  ol' mendicant  trials,  whose  be^i^Mry  bi'iiii;-  not  only 
Hcensi'd  hut  coiisccr.itcd  h\-  ndi'^ion.  is  a  most  ,i;rir\ oiis  t.ix  upon 
the  pool-  pcoplr.  who  an-  most  carefiilU'  taught  that  it  is  a  duly 
to^i\c.aiid  a  \ii\-  L;ieat  sin  to  letuse  tlu-m  their  charity.  Over 
and  ah<,\c  all  this,  the  cleri^ry  are.  in  all  ol'  them,  the  v;i'i'atest  eii- 
grossLT.s  of  land. 

l''ourthl\,  in  the  disposal  of  their  surplus  pi(»duce.  or  of  what 
igoNeiand  abo\e  their  own  consumption,  the  Mn^lish  colonies 
have  hi'iii  mole  I'axoied.  and  ha\e  been  allowed  a  moi  e  exleiisi\  c 
market,  than  thosi-  of  aii\  other  ICuropean  nation.  l^verv  Euro- 
pean nation  has  endeavored,  more  or  less,  to  monopoli/.e  to  itself 
the  commerce  of  its  colonies,  and.  upon  that  account,  has  pro- 
hibited the  ships  of  foreij^n  nations  from  tradiu'^  to  them,  ami  has 
prohibited  them  t'lom  importin;^  ICuropean  'Li;oods  iVom  aii\  forei'^n 
nation.  Ihil  the  manner  in  which  this  mono|)ol\'  has  bi'cn 
exerci-ed    in    dillereiil   nations    has    been    \erv   ditrerent. 

Some  ii.itioiis  have  jfiven  up  the  whole  commerce  of  their 
colonies  to  an  e\clusi\e  compaiu'.  of  whom  the  colonies  were 
obliged  to  buy  all  such  I->nropean  l^o(k1s  as  they  wanted,  and  to 
whom  they  weie  oblii^ed  to  sell  the  whole  of  their  own  surplus 
produce.  It  was  the  interest  of  the  company,  theretbre,  not  only 
to  sell  the  toiiuer  as  dear.  ;ind  to  biiv  the  latter  as  cheap  as  possi- 
ble, but  to  buy  no  more  of  the  latter,  even  at  this  low  price,  than 
what  they  could  dispose  of  lor  a  very  hi<j^li  price  in  Murope.  It 
was  their  interest  not  only  to  dei^rade  in  all  cases  the  value  ot"  the 
8Ur])lus  produce  of  the  colony,  but  in  manv  cases  to  discourayc 
anil  keep  down  the  naiiiral  iiicre;ise  of  its  ([uantil\-.  Of  all  the 
•xpedieiits  that  can  well  be  contrived  io  stunt  the  natiual  growth 
of  a  new  colony,  that  of  an  exclusive  company  is  undoul)tedl\  the 
most  etleclual.  I'his,  however,  has  been  the  policy  of  Holland, 
thoui^h  their  company,  in  the  course  of  the  present  centurv,  has 
given  up  in  many  respects  the  exertion  of  their  exclusive  privi- 
lege.    'J'his,  too,  was  the  policy  of  Denmark  till  the  reign  of  the 


i6 


sr,i,r,cTi(i\s. 


late  kiiit^.  ll  has  occasionalU  'r'.'ii  the  policy  of  Fi'ance,  and  <>: 
late,  since  17=^5,  al"ter  it  had  l)een  abandoned  by  all  other  natiouN. 
on  acconut  oi'  its  ahsurditv,  it.  lias  become  the  policy  of  Poitn^ral 
with  rc'i;"ai"d  at  least  to  two  of  the  princioal  pro\  iiices  of  JJra/il. 
Pei"nami)Uco  and  Maiannon. 

Other  nations,  witliout  establisiiiiiLJ  an  exclnsive  company, 
have  conllned  the  wiiole  commerce  ot"  their  colonies  to  a  j^articnla: 
pcM't  of  the  motiier  country,  from  whence  no  ship  was  allowed  l 
sail,  but  either  in  a  t1eet  and  at  a  particular  season,  or,  if  siuLjle.  ii: 
consecpience  of  a  ])articular  license,  which,  in  most  cases,  wa- 
ver\-  well  paid  for.  This  policy  opened,  indeed,  the  trade  of  tlu 
colonies  to  all  the  natives  of  the  mother  country,  prijvided  thcv 
traded  I'rom  the  ])ro[)er  port,  at  the  jjroper  season,  and  in  tlu 
pro])er  vessels.  I  Jut  as  all  the  dillerent  mercliants.  who  joined 
their  slocks  in  order  to  lit  out  those  licensed  \essels.  would  liii: 
it  lor  their  interest  to  act  in  concert,  the  trade  which  was  carrici 
on  in  this  manner  would  necessarih'  be  conducted  verv  nearlv 
upon  the  same  principles  as  that  of  an  exclusive  company.  Tin. 
prolit  of  those  merchants  would  be  almost  ec|uallv  e\orl)itant  and 
oppressive.  The  colonies  would  be  ill  supplietl,  and  would  !h 
obliged  both  to  bu\-  ver\-  dear,  and  to  sell  ver\'  cheap.  Tlii-. 
however,  till  within  these  few  years,  had  alwavs  been  the  policy 
of  .Spain,  and  the  price  of  all  European  jroods,  accordin_<i^ly.  i- 
said  to  have  been  enormous  in  the  Spanish  West  Indies.  A" 
C^uilo,  we  are  told  b\-  I'Uoa.  a  i)ound  of  iron  sold  for  aliout  four 
and  sixjience.  and  a  pound  of  steel  tor  about  six  and  ninepenci 
sterlin;4-.  Hut  it  is  chietlv  in  order  to  purchase  Europeai 
gf>oils,  that  the  colonies  part  with  their  own  produce.  Tin. 
more,  therefore,  they  ])av  for  the  one,  the  less  they  reallv 
get  tor  the  other,  and  the  dearness  of  the  one  is  the  same  thin;.' 
with  the  cheapness  of  the  other.  The  ])olicy  of  Portugal  is  in 
this  respect  the  same  as  the  ancient  jiolicy  of  Spain,  with  regaiii 
to  all  its  colonies,  except  Pernambuco  and  Marannon,  and  with 
regard  to  these  it  has  latelv  adopted  a  still  worse. 

Other  nations  leave  the  trade  of  their  colonies  free  to  all  thcii 
subjects,  who  may  carry  it  on  from  all  the  dilTerent  ports  of  the 
mother  country,  and  who  have  occasion  for  no  other  license  than 
the  common  dispatches  of  the  custom-house.  In  this  case  the 
number  and  ilispersed  situation  of  the  dillerent  traders  render  i: 
impossible  for  them  to  enter  into  anv  general  combination,  aiui 
their  competition    is  suiticient   to    hinder  them  from   making  vciv 


ex 

en 

El 

PI 

thi 

be( 

tio 

COl 

El 
hit 

ho 


COI.oMAl,    I'OLICV    OF    KIROI'K. 


17 


ii 


'r;uicc,  and  rit 
other  nation^, 
V  of  I'i)rtii;fal 
jc's  of  lira/i!. 

AC  coinpaiu. 
Lo  a  particiila: 
as  allowed  l^ 
ii",  if  single,  ir. 
ist  cases,  \va- 
c  tvadt'  ot"  llu 
provided  tluv 
1,  and  in  llu 
s.  who  joiiU't! 
Is.  would  iiiii 
h  was  carricc 
d  very  ncaiiv 
inpany.  Tin 
jxorhitant  aui: 
ind  would  Ik 
:heap.  Thi^. 
jcn  the  policy 
ccordinjjfly,  i- 
It    Indies.      A\ 


:()r  ahou 


t  f< 


our 


\ud   uinepeiK'i 
|se     Europear. 

Tin 
vealh 
thill" 


roduce. 


tl 


lev 


e  same 


)rtu<;al   is  in 
with  reijani 


Ion,  an 


d  with 


to  all  thei 


license  than 


exorliitant  i^rolit--.  rnder  so  lilK-ral  a  jiollcy  the  colonii's  aie 
enal)K-d  liolh  to  ^dl  thrirowii  pnidnceand  to  luiy  the  ooods  of 
Europe  at  a  leaMMial'le  prit-r.  I'lit  since  i\\v  (h-snlutii'n  ol  the 
PKinoiith  coinp.niv.  w  lien  mir  CdlDiiirs  were  hiit  in  tluir  inlaiiey, 
this  lias  al\\a\s  hem  tlu'  policy  of  hhiuiand.  It  has  -I'lieraliy  t(.o 
been  that  ol"  l'"raiice.  ami  has  lueii  unitornily  so  since  the  dlssohi- 
tion  <if  what,  in  lji'_;laiid.  is  eonnnoiily  called  their  Mississippi 
conipaiiv  .  The  i)n.lit>  ol"  llu'  trade.  tliiTel"ore.  which  h'ranei'  and 
England  can  \  011  with  tludr  ci>l..iiii's.  lhoiiL;h  no  douht  somewhat 
hi,L;iu  T  than  if  the  ciunpttition  was  i"tre  to  all  otluT  nations,  are, 
howi'\er.  I>\  no  nuaiis  eX' ir!)itaiil  ;  and  the  price  ol  lunopean 
good-  aecordin^U  is  not  e\Ma\  a^antly  hi^h  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  coll  lilies  of  ritlier  iif  tho-~c  nations. 

In  the  I'xpoitation  ol'  their  <iwn  siirphis'  proihice  too.  it  is  only 
with  len'ard  to  certain  einiiinoditi(.-s  that  the  colonies  ot  (ir^at 
Britain  are  eoiiliiual  10  the  niaiket  of  the  mother  counti-y.  These 
commodities  ha\in,;'  heeii  I'liimu'rated  in  the  act  of  naxi^alion  and 
in  some  otlu-r  sni'se(|iieiit  acts.  ha\e  upon  that  account  heen  called 
emimri-atcd  ri>iiiii/in//ti*s.  The  rest  are  called  iKuz-i'iniiiiciatcJ ] 
and  ma\-  hi'  exported  tlirectlx  to  otlier  count  lies,  proxidial  it  is  in 
British  or  IMantatiiui  ships,  of  wliieli  the  owners  and  three-t'oui  tlis 
of  tlu' mariiKis  are  Ihitisli  snhjects. 

Anion"'  the  noii-cinnnerated   commodities  are  some  ot  the  most 


important  productions  ot  America  at 


lid  the  West   Indies  :  irrain  of 


all 


)rt^ 


inmher.  sal 


))ri>\i,sions, 


fisl 


1.  sn'''ar 


and  rum. 


(iiaiii  is  iialuralU  the  first  and  principal  object  of  the  eidlure  of 
r>\  allowiii;^  them  a  \er\'  extensive  niaiki  t  ibr 


new  colonics. 


all 

it,  the   law  eiiconraiies   them  to  extend   this  culture  much   hexoiid 

th 

bef( 


e  coiisumplion  of  a  tliinlv  inhahited  coiintrw  and  thus  to  provide 
'orehand    an    ami)le    subsistence    for   a    contiiiuallv    increasint; 


jonulation. 


Ii 


11  a  couiitiA'  (piite  covered  with  wood,  where  timlier  consc- 
qnentb  is  of  little  or  no  value,  the  expense  t)f  cleariiiL;'  the  ground 
is  the  principal  obstacle  to  inipro\  emeiit.  \\\  allow  int^  the  colo- 
nies a  \erv  extensive  market  for  their  lumber  the  law  endeavors  to 


ports  of  the  facilitate  impro\ement  b^■  raisinq^  the  price  of  a  commoditv  which 


won 


Id  ot 


lerwise  lie  o 


f  littl 


e  vaiu' 


and 


th 


lerenv  enahluii 


tl 


lem  to 


this   case  the  make  some  jirollt  of  what  would  otherwise  be  mere  expense, 
lers  render  i:  In    a   country   neither    halt-peopled    nor    half-cultivated,   cattle 

hination,  ami  naturally  inulti[)ly  beyond  tlie  consumption  of  the  inhabitants.  ;md 

pnaUing  very  are  otten.  upon  that  account,  of  little  or  no  value.      But  it  is  neces- 


ii 


li:» 


m 


i8 


SKI.KCTIOXS. 


.s;ir\'.  it  has  already  been  shown,  that  the  price  of  cattle  shnulii 
bear  a  certain  proportion  to  that  of  corn  before  the  ji^reater  ])ait  n: 
tile  lands  of  anv  country  can  be  improved.  1>\'  allowinj^  ii 
American  cattle,  in  all  shapes,  dead  and  ali\e  a  \erv  extensive 
niarUet.  the  law  endeavors  to  raise  the  \alue  of  a  eommoditv  i; 
which  the  hit;h  price  is  so  very  essential  t)  impro\ement.  The 
j^ood  etVects  of  this  liberty,  lunvexer,  must  be  soniew  hat  dimin- 
ished bv  the  4th  of  (ieor^e  III.,  c.  15.  which  puts  hides  and  skin- 
amon<j  the  emimerated  coirimodities,  and  thereby  tends  to  reihu^ 
the  \  ablation  of  ^Vmerican  cattle. 

To  increase  the  shippint;-  and  na\al  power  of  Great  Hritaiii, 
bv  the  extension  ol  the  lisheries  of  onr  colonies,  is  an  objec; 
■which  the  lec;islatnre  seems  to  have  had  almost  constantlv  ii. 
view.  Those  llslieries.  upon  this  account,  have  had  all  the  en- 
couragement which  tVeedom  can  ti,i\e  them,  and  thev  h.ne  nour- 
ished accoi-din^ly.  The  New  bviij^hnul  lishery  in  particular  wa-. 
befoi'e  the  late  disturbances,  one  of  the  most  im])ortant.  peiiiap-. 
in  the  world.  The  whale-iishcrw  which,  notwithstanding;'  ai: 
extravagant  bounty,  is  in  Great  Hritain  carried  on  t(j  so  little  pui- 
pose,  that,  in  the  opinion  of  manv  people  (which  I  do  not,  how- 
e\er,  jiretend  to  wariant)  the  whole  produce  does  not  nun.; 
exceed  the  \alue  of  the  bounties  which  are  annuallv  paitl  ibr  it, 
is  in  New  ICnu;land  carried  on  w  ithout  anv  bountv  to  a  verv  <;'re;i' 
extent.  Fish  is  one  of  the  princij^al  articles  with  which  the  Xorti. 
^Vmericans  trade  to  Spain.  Portnj^al,  and  the  Mediterranean. 

Su<rar  was  ori<'inallv  an  enumerated  commodity  which  could 
be  e\p(jrted  only  to  (jreat  Britain.  Hut  in  17^1,  upon  a  repri- 
sentation  of  tlv;  su;j,ar-planters,  its  exportation  was  permitted  I 
all  parts  of  the  ^vorld.  The  resti'ictions,  however,  with  whii. 
this  libert}-  was  oranted,  joined  to  the  hi^h  price  of  sugar  in  Great 
I>ritain,  have  rendered  it,  in  a  great  measure,  inelVectual.  Great 
Britain  and  her  colonies  still  continue  to  be  almost  the  soli 
market  for  all  the  sugar  produced  in  the  British  plantations. 
Their  consumption  increases  so  fast,  that,  though  in  conse([uenc\ 
of  the  increasing  im[)rovement  of  Jamaica,  as  well  as  of  the 
Ceded  Islands,  the  importation  of  sugar  has  increased  very  greai'n 
within  these  twenty  years,  the  exportation  to  foreign  countries  i- 
said  to  be  not  much  greater  than  betore. 

Rum  is  a  \  ery  imi)ortant  article  in  the  tra  '  •  \vhich  the  Ameri- 
cans cairy  on  to  the  C(;ast  (jf  Africa,  from  which  ihcy  bring  back 
ne'-ro  sla\es  in  return. 


n: 


'.v. 


CDl.t  iMAI.    i'oI.ICV    Ml-     KL  ROi'i;. 


19 


catllc  slioulii 
•greater  part  n; 
\'  allc)\vin,L(  ti- 
\vy\  extensive 
commodity  nt 
\cnKiit.  The 
lew  liat  (iimiii- 
lick's  and  skiih 
ends  to  lediKX 

Great  IJritaiii, 

..   is   an    ohjec; 

:  constantly   in 

lad  all  the  en- 

icy  li.tve  tloui- 

larticnlar  wa-, 

rtant,  jierliaps, 

ithstandintj  ai; 

:o  so  little  pin- 

I  do  not.  how- 

)cs    not    muci. 

lly  paid  for  it, 

o  a  very  grea; 

ich  the  North 

crraiiean. 

which    could 

pon   a   reprr- 

permitted  U 

with   which 

uj^ar  in  Gre;it 

ctual.      (irea! 

most  the  soil 

plantatioii>. 

conse([iiencc 

ell    as    of  the 

(1  \-ery  j^reatlv 

n  countries  i> 

1   the  Ameri- 
,'V  brin*^  back 


If  the  whole  surplus  produce  ol'  America  in  <4i-ain  (if  all  sorts. 
in  salt  proxisions.  and  in  li>ii.  had  been  put  int(  the  enmneratiou. 
and  thereb\-  forced  into  the  market  <il  (iieat  Ibitain,  it  would 
have  intertered  too  much  with  the  produce  of  the  iudu--try  of  our 
own  people.  It  was  probablv  not  s  nnich  from  an\'  rei^Mrd  to 
the  interest  of  America,  as  tVoin  a  jealousy  oj"  this  iuti'rfereuce. 
that  those  impoitant  connnodities  have  not  only  been  kept  out  ot' 
the  cumueration.  but  that  the  impoilation  into  Cir(.'at  ibitain  of 
all  .t,naiu.  except  lice,  and  of  all  salt  pro\  isions,  lias,  in  the  ordi- 
nary state  of  the  law.  been  prohibited. 

The  non-enumerated  commodities  could  ori^iualh' be  ex]:)orted 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Lumber  and  rice.  ha\ini;  been  once 
put  into  the  enumeration,  when  thev  were  afterwards  taken  out 
of  it.  were  coutined.  as  to  the  ICuropean  market,  to  the  countiies 
that  lie  south  of  Cape  I'inistene.  \t\  the  f)th  oi"(ieoi\L;e  III.,  c. 
52.  all  non-enumerated  commodities  were  subjectedi  to  the  like 
restriction.  The  parts  of  luirope  which  lie  south  o!"  Cape  b^'ii- 
isterre.  arc  not  manutacturin^-  counti-ies.  and  we  were  less  jealous 
of  the  colouN'  ships  cai  rsiiit;'  home  tVoni  them  an\  maiuiiaclures 
which  could  inlertere  w  ith  our  own. 

The  enumerated  commodities  are  of  two  sorts:  lirst.  sudi  as 
are  either  the  {peculiar  produce  of  .\merica.  or  as  cannot  be  ]iro- 
duced,  or  at  least  are  not  produced,  in  the  mother  countr\ .  Of 
this  kind  are,  molasses,  coflee.  cocoanuts.  tobacco,  pimento, 
gini;er.  whale-lins.  raw  silk,  cotton-wool.  l)ea\er.  and  other  peltrv 
of  j\merica.  indis^o.  t'ustic.  and  other  d\ein<;-  woods:  secondlv, 
such  as  are  not  the  |)eculiar  produce  of  ^Vmerica.  but  which  are 
and  may  be  produced  in  the  mother  countr\ .  though  not  in  such 
quantities  as  to  sup])ly  tin;  greater  part  of  her  deman<l,  which  is 
princi[);dly  su])plied  tVom  foreig-n  countries.  Of  this  kind  are  all 
naval  stores,  masts,  yards,  and  bowsprits,  tar.  pitch,  and  turpen- 
tine, pl'j;  and  bar  iron,  copper  ore.  hides  and  skins,  pot  ;ind  pearl 
ashes.  The  largest  im])ortatiou  of  commodities  of  the  first  kind 
(Bould  not  discourage  the  growth  or  inlerter'j  with  tlu'  sale  of"  anv 
part  of  the  produce  (4'  the  mother  country.  By  contining  them 
to  the  home  market,  our  merchants,  it  was  e\i)ected,  would  not 
only  be  enabled  to  buy  them  cheaper  in  the  I'laiitalions,  and  con- 
secpiently  to  sell  them  w  ith  a  better  proiit  at  home,  but  to  estab- 
lish between  the  Plantations  and  tbreign  countries  an  ad\  aiitagcfuis 
carrying  trade,  of  which  (ireat  IJritain  was  necessaiilv  to  be  the 
centre  or  emporium,  as  the   European   countrv   into   which  those 


n 


ll 

m 


»;*»' 


20 


SF.l,F('TIf)\S. 


cominodilic's  were  fu'sl  tcj  he  imported.  The  iinportMlimi  of  coin- 
uiodities  ()l"tlie  second  kind  nii^lit  l)e  so  miUKi^cd  too.  it  was  sup- 
posed, as  to  interfere,  not  willi  the  sale  of  iho^i'of  the  same  kind 
which  \\  ere  prochiced  at  home,  luit  with  that  ot'tliosc'  wliich  wei\ 
impoited  from  h)reii;n  coimtiirs  ;  hecanse,  Ii\'  meairs  ot  pro])ii 
duties,  the\'  mi;4ht  lie  rt  luk'red  alwa\s  somew  liat  dearei  than  thi 
former,  and  vet  a  ycxxl  (kal  cheaper  than  the  kilter.  Hv  contiii- 
in;^  such  connnodities  to  tlie  home  market,  theri'foii'.  it  was  pro- 
posc-d  to  (liscoura;4e  tlie  |)r()duce.  not  of  Great  Ihitain,  Init  ol 
some  loreit;'n  connlrii's  with  which  tlie  balance  of  trade  was  be- 
lieved to  be  unfa\orable  to  (ireat  Uritain. 

The  prohibition  of  exportint^  iVom  the  colonies,  to  anv 
other  countrv  but  (jieat  nritain.  masts,  \ards,  and  bowsprit>, 
tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  naturally  tended  to  lower  the  pi  ice  "! 
timber  in  the  colonies,  and  conse([ueiill\'  to  increase  the  expeiiM 
of  clearini;-  their  lands,  the  principal  obstacle  to  their  impro\e- 
ment.  IJut  about  the  be;_;iiniin!^  of  the  present  centur\'.  in  170,1. 
the  |<iich  and  tar  companv  of  Swcvl  ai  endeavored  to  raise  the  prin. 
of  their  commodities  to  (Jreat  Hritain,  bv  prohibiting'  their  expoi-- 
tatioii,  except  in  their  own  ships,  at  their  own  price,  and  in  sucii 
quantities  as  they  thou'^h'  proper.  In  order  to  counteract  thi- 
notable  piece  of  mercantile  policy,  and  to  render  herself  as  much 
as  possible  independent,  not  onl\  of  Sweden,  but  of  all  the  otlui 
noithern  powers.  Ciieal  liritain  L;ave  a  boniilv  upon  (he  import,'- 
tion  of  lunal  stores  from  ^Vmeiica.  and  the  etlect  of  this  boiinlv 
was  to  raise  the  price  of  tim'ter  in  .Vmerica,  much  more  than  the 
coniinement  to  the  home  market  could  lower  it;  and.  as  both 
regulations  were  enacted  at  the  same  time,  their  joint  etlect  wa- 
rather   to    encourage   than   to   discoura'-e   the  clearinir  of  land   in 


Tiiou^h  pii^  and  bar  iron  too  ha\e  been  put  anioiii;-  the  enu- 
merated commodities,  yet  as,  when  imported  from  ^Vmerica. 
thev  are  exempted  from  considerable  duties  to  which  thev  an. 
subject  when  imported  from  any  other  country,  the  one  part  nt 
the  regulation  contributes  more  to  encourai^e  the  erection  of  t"iir- 
naces  in  America,  than  the  other  to  discourai^e  it.  There  is  iin 
mamif icturt'  w  hich  occasions  so  orcat  a  consumption  of  wood  ,h 
a  furnace,  or  which  can  contribute  so  much  to  the  clearint;"  of  :i 
count i\'  ()\erL;'rown  with  it. 

The  tendency  of  some  of  these  renulations  to  raise  the  value  i»t 
timl)er  in  America,  and  thereby  to  facilitate  the  cleariufj^of  the  lamh 


I 


cnloMAI.    POLICY    oi'    I'lRi  H'l", 


21 


latinii  of  coiri- 
)().  it  \v:is  su])- 
llic  saiiK'  kiiiil 
•c  wliicli  \\ci\' 
:ins  o{'  propir 
.•;nci  than  tlii' 
Hv  contln- 
C-.  it  was  prii- 
Jritain.  Imt  ni 
trade  was  Ik- 

nics,  to  am 
11(1  bowsprits, 
T  the  pi  ice  nf 
sc  the  expensi' 
heir  iir,pro\e- 
tmy.  ill  170;,. 
raise  tlie  price 
i;4  their  expor- 
c.  and  in  such 
[ounteract  thi- 
"selt"  as  much 
all  the  other 
the  ini])ortn- 
"  this  homily 
nore  tiian  tlic 
and.  as  hoth 
)int  ellect  \\:i- 
'•   ot"  land   in 

m'j;  the  cnu- 

m    America. 

lich  they  aiv 
one  pAVt  ot 
ection  of  t'lii- 

There  is  iin 
)n  of  wood  a- 
clearint4"  of  a 

.'  the  value  i>l 
'>()f  the  laiuh 


was  neither.  ]-)erhaps.  intended  nor  understood  hy  the  legislature. 
Though  their  iH-neticial  elVect'-.  howi'ver.  ha\e  hi-en  in  this 
respt'ct  .iccidental.  tlu'\'  ha\e  not  upon  that  accoiml  heeii  less 
real. 

The  most  perfect  fret'dmn  of  trade  is  permitted  hetwei'ii  the 
British  colonics  ot"  America  and  the  W'l  ^t  Indies,  hoth  in  the  I'liu- 
meraled  and  in  the  iionenumerated  coniinodities.  Those  colonies 
are  now  lu-come  so  ])opulous  and  lhri\in<4'.  that  each  ol"them  iinds 
in  some  of  tile  others  a  '^I'eat  and  extensive  market  tor  e\ery  ])art 
of  its  produce.  All  of  them  taken  together.  the\'  make  a  m"reat 
internal  market  lor  liie  pi'odnce  ot  one  another. 

'J'lie  lilieralit\-  of  Mn^land,  howe\er.  towards  the  trade  of  her 
Coloniis  has  hccn  coiilinc(.l  chielK'  to  \\  hat  concerns  tlii'  market 
for  their  produce,  either  in  its  rude  state,  or  in  what  may  he 
called  the  \  er\  lirst  sta^'e  of  manufacture.  The  more  aihanci'd 
or  moll.'  irliiied  mamifactm'es  c'\en  ot'  the  coloiu'  produce,  the 
merclianls  and  manufacturers  of  (iicit  Ihitain  choose  to  reser\c 
to  tlunisLh  IS.  and  ha\e  prex.uK'd  upon  the  Ici^islature  to  prevent 
theii'  establishment  in  the  colonies,  sometimes  b\'  hi^Ii  duties, 
and  souietimes  b\   absolute   [)roliil)itioiis. 

While,  for  example.  Muscovado  su;^ars  from  the  British  plan- 
tations, pav  u|)on  impoilatioii  onl\  (is.  p/.  tlie  hundred  weij^ht; 
whiti,' sugars  pav  f  1.  \s.  \J.  \  and  relined.  eitlu'r  double  orsintrle, 
in  loavi's  t\p  _>\.  ^(/.  ..'^i,.  When  those  hii^h  duties  were  imposed, 
Great  Ihilain  was  the  sole,  and  she  still  continues  to  he  the  prin- 
cipal niaiket  to  which  the  sizars  of  the  IJritish  colonies  could  l)e 
exported.  'J'lie\-  amounted,  therefore,  to  a  piohibition,  at  lirst  of 
clayin;,;-  or  reliniiiL;-  siiL^ar  for  any  foreign  market,  and  at  [Jiescnt 
of  claying-  or  ri'liiiiui^  it  for  the  market,  which  takes  olV.  perhaps, 
more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  ])roduce.  The  manufacture 
of  clayln<;  or  relinin^^  sui;ar  accordin^lv,  thouLih  it  has  llourislicd 
fn  all  the  suyar  colonies  of  France,  has  been  little  culti\ated  in 
an}-  of  tli(;se  of  I-2n*fland.  excejit  for  the  market  of  the  colonies 
themsilves.  While  (benada  was  in  the  hands  of  the  I'^reiich 
there  was  a  rermei}-  of  siiLjar.  b\-  cla\ Jul;-  at  least,  upon  almost 
every  plantation.  Since  it  fell  into  those  of  the  luii^lish.  almost 
all  woiks  ot  this  kind  ha\e  been  i^ixen  up.  and  there  are  at 
present,  October,  177;^.  I  am  assured,  not  abo\  e  two  or  three 
remaiiiinL,r  in  the  island.  At  present,  liowe\er.  b\  an  indulgence 
ot  tin-  custom-house,  clayed  or  refined  sui^ar.  if  reduced  from 
loa\es  iiuo  [xtwder.  is  commonly  imported  as  Muscovatlo. 


1T 


22  sr.i.F,(  riONS. 

Wliile  Circat  Britain  ciKoiirancs  in  AnuTica  the  inaiin- 
iactmcs  ot"  pit;-  and  bar  jioii,  1)\'  L'\c'ni])ti)ii:(  them  tVoni  lUitir- 
to  which  the  lil<e  eonnnndities  aie  siihieeted  when  iinpo'.tn 
Ironi  aii\  other  countrw  she  inipii^es  an  ahsohite  |)ri)hihitiM' 
upon  the  erection  of  steel  linnaces  and  slit-mills  in  an\-  i 
her  A'.nericaii  plantations.  Shi'  will  not  snll'er  her  coloni-i- 
t')  work  in  those  more  relined  inannlactni  es  even  tor  tlui: 
own  consumption  ;  hut  insisLs  upon  their  purchasin;^-  of  her  nu  r- 
chants  and  niaiuit'acturers  all  L;(;ods  ot'  this  kind  which  thev  ha\i 
occasion  tor. 

She  ])rohil)its  the  exjjortation  from  one  ])ro\ince  to  another  \<\ 
water,  and  e\  en  the  carriage  1)\'  land  upon  horsehack  or  in  . 
carl,  ol  hats,  (jt"  wools  and  woollen  ^oods,  oi"  the  produce  i: 
America  ;  a  regulation  which  etVectualh'  prevents  the  estahlisli- 
mentoi'an\'  niaimractiire  of  such  commodities  tor  distant  sale,  aii; 
coniines  the  industrx'  of  her  colonists  in  this  wa\'  to  such  cckum 
and  household  manufaLtures.  as  a  j:)ri\a!c  tamil\- conunonlv  makc- 
toi'  its  own  use,  or  for  that  of  some  of  its  neighbors  in  the  sanu 
pro\ ince. 

To  prohibit  a  threat  |)eople,  however,  tVom  makin,L,'  all  that  the 
can  of  e\er\'  part  (d' their  own  produce,  or  from  emplovini;'  tlui 
stock  and  industry  in  the  way  that  they  Judj^e  most  advantayeoii- 
to  themselves,  is  a  manifest  \iolation  of  the  most  sacred  riq;hts  c 
mankind.  I'njust,  howe\  er,  as  such  prohibitions  may  l)e,  the 
ha\'e  not  hitherto  been  very  hurtt'ul  to  the  colonies.  Land  is  stil 
so  cheap,  and.  conse(|uentl\'.  labor  so  clear  amon^'  them,  that  tlm 
can  im|)ort  I'rom  the  mother  countr\'  almost  all  the  more  reihu  . 
or  more  advanced  manutactures  cheaper  than  the\'  could  make 
them  tor  themselves.  Though  they  had  not,  therefore,  been  pni- 
hibited  from  establishing;-  such  maiuitactures.  vet  in  their  prescn; 
state  of  improvement,  a  rej^aril  to  their  own  inteiest  would, 
probabh',  ha\e  prexented  them  from  doin<;'  so.  In  their  presiii: 
state  of  iin[)rovement  those  prohibitions,  perhaps,  without  cramp- 
inn"  their  industrv,  or  restraining,-  it  trou)  an\'  emi^hAinent  ! 
which  it  woulil  ha\e  ^one  of  its  own  accord,  are  only  impertinci,: 
badj^es  of  shnery  im[)osed  upon  them,  without  any  sullicient  rea- 
son, bv  the  i^roundless  jealousy  ol"  the  merchants  and  manufav- 
tiuxMs  of  the  mother  countrw  In  a  more  advanced  state  thi.^ 
might  be  reallv  op])ressi\e  antl  insupportable. 

(Jreat  Britain  too,  as  she  coniines  to  her  own  market  some  o! 
the  most  important   product"'     s  of  the  colonies,  so  in  compcnsi- 


"# 

•n*^ 


COl.oMAI,    I'ol.ICS     til'    i:i  Roi'l', 


a     the     inaiiu- 

11     tVolll     (llltir- 

Ik'11  im))«)Vlr., 
ite  |)r< )liil)itin! 
ills  in  any  i-; 
Ikt  coloiiist- 
•vc'ii  for  tlu'ii 
i;^-  of  her  iiui- 
lich  they   Ikui 

lo  another  In 
^el)ack  or  in  , 
ie  produce  !■; 
,  the  estahlisli- 
i.stant  sale,  :uh. 
.0  such  cikum 
ininoiiK"  make 
rs    in  the  saiiii 

v^  all  that  till'; 

iiployini;-  thci 

t  advantayx-oi!- 

icred  i'i;4lits  1 : 

niav  l)e,  tlic 

Land  is  stil 

leni,  that  tin} 

more  relnn.'. 

\-   could   uiak. 

)re.  heen  pin- 

their  prescir, 

terest    would 

their  prescii: 

itliout  cramp- 

nplovment   t 

\-  impertinn  ■ 

suilicient  rca- 

md   nianufi.- 

ed    state  llu} 

irket  some  0: 
in  compensa- 


tion she  uM\es  to  some  (»f  them  an  a(l\antaL,^e  in  that  marki't  : 
sonu'liines  1>\'  inijiosiuL;'  higher  duties  upon  the  liki'  ])roducti(ins 
wlu'U  iiuportfd  iVom  <itlu'r  cnuntiies.  and  sr)metimes  li\  ^ix  int;' 
bounliis  upon  tluir  importation  tVom  the  coldnirs.  In  the  lirst 
wa\'  she  ,ui\es  an  adxantai^e  in  the  home  maikct  to  the  su^^ar.  to- 
bacco, and  iion  ot'  her  own  colonies,  and  in  the  st'cond  to  their 
raw  silk,  to  their  lu-mp  and  tki\.  to  tlieii^  indii^'o,  to  their  na\al 
Stores,  and  to  their  huildiiP4-tind>ei.  This  second  wa\'  of  en- 
COUiaL,dn^  the  coloiiN'  produce  li\'  hi  imities  upon  importation,  is, 
so  t'ai'  ;is  I  ha\e  luen  ahle  to  learn,  peculiar  to  (ireat  IJritain. 
The  lirst  is  not.  l'ortui,ral  does  not  content  herself  with  imposin<^ 
hi<;lu'r  duties  n])on  the  imi)oitation  of  toiiacco  from  anv  other 
Couiitrx.  hut  ])rohiliits  it  under  the  s(.'\ei\-st  ])enallies. 

With  riuard  to  tlu-  importation  of  ijoods  tVom  I>urope.  IhiLjland 
has  likeu  ise  dealt  more  liheralK  with  her  colonies  than  anv  other 
nation. 

(ireat  Hritain  allows  a  p-AVi,  almost  aKvaxs  the  half,  i^enerallv 
a  larger  ])ortion,  and  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  dutv  which  is 
paid  upiin  the  importation  of  foreign  ^^^oods.  to  he  drawn  hack 
upon  their  i-xpnrtation  to  any  I'oreij^n  countiw  Xo  in(!e|)en(lent 
foreign  country,  it  was  eas\-  to  loiesee.  wonld  recei\'e  them  if 
they  came  to  it  loaded  with  thehea\y  duties  to  which  almost  all 
foreiL;'n  ,i;()ods  are  suhjectetl  on  their  importation  into  (Jreat 
Britain.  L'ldess.  therefore,  some  part  of  those  duties  was  tlrawn 
back  ui)on  exportation,  there  was  an  end  of  the  carrvinj.^  trade  ; 
a  trade  so  much  faNorcd  hy  the  mercantile   s\stem. 

Oui- colonies.  howe\er,  are  hy  no  means  independent  forei<rn 
coimtries  ;  and  (iieat  Ihitain.  ha\in<4- assumed  to  herself  the  ex- 
clusi\-e  ri'^ht  of  supplyint^^  them  with  all  i^oods  from  Ein'Ojie, 
mijiht  have  forced  them  (in  the  same  maimer  as  other  countries 
have  done  their  colonies)  t(j  recej\e  such  yoods  loaded  with  all 
the  same  duties  w  liich  they  paid  in  the  mother  countrv.  iUit.  on 
tlie  contrary,  till  176^,  the  same  drawlxicks  were  paid  upon  the 
exj^oitation  of  the  greater  part  of  foreign  ^oods  to  our  colonies  as  to 
any  independent  foreign  country.  In  1763,  indeed,  hv  the  .4th 
of  (ieor^e  III.,  c.  15,  this  induljj^ence,  was  a  ijood  ileal  abated, 
and  it  was  enacted,  '^  That  no  ])art  of  the  duty  called  tlie 
old  subsidy  should  he  drawn  hack  for  an\-  o-oods  of  the  growth, 
prodiietion,  or  maiuifacture  of  ICurope  or  the  Kast  Indies,  w  hich 
,6hould  he  exported  from  this  kinodom  to  anv  Ihitish  colonv  or 
plantation   in   America;   wines,   white   calicoes  and    muslins"  e.\- 


'■m 


24 


SF'I  F,("IIf>\S. 


CL'l)lC(l 


lU'lnrc  this    law  .  inain  dilllTcnt  sorts  of  forci'Mi   troo 


nii<rht    li;i\L'  hcfii   bou^lil  cluapt'i'   in  llir   |)laiilalioiis  than   in   tli 


iiioIIk'I'  coiintr\ 


and 


sonir  ina\   still. 


( )l    till'  '.;i(.'at(.'i'    pait   o|'  iJir    ii'i^iilat  ion:,   (.'onic'iniii',;    the   colon, 
tradi.',  tin'   nu'uliants  wiio   cair\   it    on.  it   nnist  lie  (jl)SL'r\i'(l.  1ki\i 


1. 


ict'ii  till-   piincipal  a(l\  iscrs. 


W 


c  must   not  wonder,  thcri'torc,  it 


in  lliL'  greater  part  otllK'ni,  tlitii'  nitLTcst  has  hci-n  niorr  c'onsidcr(.(; 
than  fither  that  of  the  colonies  or  that  of  tlu-  mother  conntis'.      h. 


their  e\chisi\e    j))  i\  ile'_;e  of  supi)l\in'4    the    colonies  with    a 


11    tl 


''Ol  xls 


whiih    tiu'\-  wan 


ted    fi 


rom  r.nrope,  and  ot  ])urchasmi^  ai. 
such  parts  of  their  snrplns  prodiue  as  could  not  interfeie  with  ai'\ 
of  the  trades  which  the\'  themselves  cairieil  on  at  home,  tlu 
interest  of  the  colonies  was  sacriliced  to  the  interest  of  those  niei- 
chants.  In  allowing'  thi'  same  drawhacks  upon  the  re-exporta- 
tion of  the  t;reater  part  of  l^niopean  and  I-".ast  India  '^oods  to  tii^ 
colonies,  as  upon  their  re-exportation  to  an\  in(le]X'ndent  c.iuntr\. 
the  interest  otthe  mother  conntiv  was  sacriliced  to  it.  e\  en  accord- 
ing' to  the  mercantile  ideas  ol' that  interest.  It  was  tor  the  interc-; 
of  the  merchants  to  pa\'  as  little  as  possible  I'oi'  the  torei<^n  jj^ooil- 
which  thev  sent  to  the  coloines.  and  conseipientlv,  to  L^ct  I)ack  a- 
much  as  possil>k'  ol"  the  duties  which  the\  adxanced  upon  tlu;: 
importation  into  (ireat  IJritain.  TIu'N'  mi^ht  therein  he  enahUi; 
to  sell  in  tiie  colonii's.  either  the  same  <iuantit\  of  ^oods  w  itii  .- 
<4"reatcr  profit,  oi'  a  ^rcati-r  (piantitN-  w  Ith  the  same  profit,  anii. 
consecpientlv.  to  'H'ain  somethiuL;"  either  in  the  one  wav  oi'  the  other. 
It  was,  likewise,  for  the  interest  of  the  colonies  to  t;et  all  sucli 
l;'o()(Is  as  chea[)  and  in  as  i^reat  ahundaiice  as  ]:)ossil)Ie.  IJut  tlii- 
mi;j;ht  not  alua\s  be  for  the  interest  of  the  mother  country,  .^lu 
mi^ht  tVei|uentIv  sutler  both  in  her  revenue,  bv  i;Mvin':^  back  ,i 
l^reat  part  of  the  duties  whicli  had  been  p.'Uil  upon  the  importa- 
tion f)f  such  t^oods  ;  and  in  her  manut'actures.  b\-  beini;"  undersold 
in  the  colonv  market,  in  coirsecpunce  of  the  easv  terms  iii)iiii 
which  f<)rci;4n  manufactures  could  lie  cari'ied  thither  b\-  mt'ans  (>; 
th(jse  drawbacks.  The  proj^ress  of  the  linen  manufacture  ul 
Great  Britain,  it  is  connnoid\  said,  has  been  a  ^ood  deal  re- 
tarded b\  the  drawbacks  u[)on  the  re-exportation  of  ( jei"man  liui.;'. 
to  the  ^\merican  colonies. 

l)Ut  tbouLi'li  the  policy  of  (jreat  Hritain  with  lei^artl  to  the 
trade  of  her  colonies  has  been  dictated  bv  the  same  mercantik' 
spirit  as  that  of  other  nations,  it  has,  however,  upon  the  whole, 
been  less  illiberal  and  oppressi\e  than  that  of  am  of  them. 


E 

cop 

cit 

sej 

rit 


ani 
as 
eiti 
thi 

CO  I 


f 


(■(  i|.<  iNIAI,    I'<  »I  I('\'    '  '!■     I'.l  Ki  M'l', 


foreign  i;o(j(l- 
is  tliaii    ill   tlu 

1'4  the  ciiloiiv 
bscTM'd.  li;i\i 
.  tlicicfore,  il. 
)W  coiisidcni; 
■  CoillltrN'.  h; 
-  with  all  till 
)iirclia.sintr  ;ii' 

rf(.Mc  with  am 
at    home,    the 

(it    tilOSC   Mill- 
ie  re'-c'xport.i- 
I  <4'0()(is  to  tik 
idenl  i.\iiiiitr\, 
.  c\c\i  acc(;iil- 
or  the  intcii's! 
iorci<''n  irood" 
U)  'j;ct  hack  ;h 
L'd   upon    tlu;ii 
h\-  l)c  t'lialtli'ii 
_!4(»<)ds  with  a 
c    ]M-otit,  ami. 
or  the  otlier. 
1)  ^'et   all   siu'h 
lie.       IJut  tlii- 
lountry.      .S|k 
ivitiLij  h;iek  a 
the  iniporta- 
ii'4'  undersold 
terms   upon 
li\'  nit'ans  ol 
nutaeturc   oi 
,ood   deal    ic- 
jerinan  liiKii 

^i^ard   to  tlk' 
mercantile 
|i   the  whole, 
them. 


Ill    i'\er\tliin;4.   e\eept   their    foieinii    trade,    tlu'    liheity    ot"    the 
En<di>h   colonists   to  manage    tlu'ir  own  allairs    tiu'ir  own    way  is 
COnipleli-.      It    is    ine\ei\     respect    iqiial    to   that    of  tlieii'   I'ellow- 
Clti/.eiis  at    hoiiu'.  and  i>    seemed    in    tlu-  same    manner.  l>y  an  as- 
senihU of  the    representatives  (,f  the    i)eopie.  who  claim   the   sole 
right  ol' imposing  taxes  tor  the  support  of  the  colony  i;()\  einment. 
The   anthnrit\    ol    this   assemhly   oxerawes   the   executive    power. 
and  lU'ither  the  meanest    nor  the  mo-t  olinoxious  colonist,  as  Ioiil;- 
as  lu'   chexs  the   law.  has  anUliiii'^   to    fear   from   the   ri'sentmenl. 
eitlirr  ot"  the  <4o\ernor,  <>r  o|"  an\-  other   ci\  il  or  military  ollicer  in 
thepro\inci'        Tiie   co|on\   assemhlii's.  thouL;h.  like   the   house  ol 
commons   in    jjinland.  the\  art'    not    always   a\ery    eipial    repre- 
sentation   of  the    people.  \  et    they  approach    more  nearly    to   that 
character:   and  as   the  executive  power    eitlu'r   has  not    the  means 
to  corrupt    them.  or.  on  account  of  the  support  which  it   recei\i'S 
from  the   mother  conntr\'.  is  not  under  the  nec(.'ssit\  ot   doiiiL;"  so, 
thevaie   perhaps  in   <4eneial    niMi-e  intlueiiced    hy  the    inclinations 
of  their  constituents.      The    councils,  which,  in    the  colony  legis- 
latures, correspond  to  the  house  of  lords  in  (iieat  IJritain.  are  not 
composed  of  an  hereditar\'  nol>ilit\.      In  some  of  the  colonies,  as 
in  three  of  the  >4o\  einnients   ot"  New  I'^nj^land.  those  councils  are 
not  ajipi  liiiied   h\'  the    UiiiL;'.  hut   chosen    1)\'  the  represiailatixes  ot 
the  people.      In  none  <>i    the  Ijii^lish  colonies  is   there  ati\'  heredi- 
tarv  noliilitv.      In    all    of  them,  indeed,  as   in  all    other  free  coun- 
tries, the   descendant   of  an  old    coloiiv  t'amil\    is   more    respected 
than  an    n])start  of  eipial  merit  and  fortune:   hut  he   is  onlv  uKne 
respected.  ;md    he   has  no   pri\  ilexes  li\-  which  he   can  In-  trouble- 
some   to    his    nei^'iihors.  IJefire     the    commeiicemeut    of    the 
present  distui  hances.  the  coloiu  :issemhlies  had  not  onlv  the  lei^is- 
lative,   but  a  ]);ut  of  the  executive   pow  er.      In   Connecticut  and 
Rhode   Island   the\'  elected  the  '4()\einor.      In   the  other  colonies 
the\   appointed   the   revenue  ollicers   who   collected   the  taxes    im- 
posed b\'  those  respective  ;issemblies,  to  whom  those  oiriceis  were 
inimediiately    responsible.       There    is    more    eijualitv  .    theietoie, 
anioiii;  the  I'2ny;lish  colonists  th;m  amoii',;-  the   inliabit;uils  of  the 
niolher  countiv.      Their  uKinners  are   more  i"e|)ubtican,  and  their 
governments,  thosj  of  three  of  the  provinces  of  New  I^n;_;'land   in 
particnlai".  ha\e  hitherto  been  more  republican  too. 

'i'iie  absolute  LjovernmeiUs  of  Sp.iin.  Portuii^al.  and  I'raiice.  on 
the  contrary,  take  place  in  their  colonies  ;  ;uid  the  discretionary 
powers  which  such  governments  cominoiilv  delegate  to  all   their 


Hi: 


26 


sr.i,i:("ii(iNs. 


inic'fior  olllccrs  nro.  on  ncoount  of  the  '^roiit  <Iis(aiH'o,  naliirull 
c'MTcisL'd  there  witli  iiioir  than  ofdiiiarv  vioKaice.  I'lider  :i 
absolute  '^oveninu'iitN  there  is  tiKHe  lihi'its  in  the  capital  than  i 
an\  olhei'  part  oj'the  eiiniitr\.  'I"he  si)\  eieiL^'i'.  hiinsill"  eaii  ik'\i 
liave  either  iiilei(.">l  oi'  iui'liiiatinn  to  pervert  the  (inler  ot  jiistii  ; 
or  to  opj)ies,s  the  -^reat  iioil\  ol"  (he  pi'ople.  In  thi-  eapital  lii 
])resenee  overawes  more  or  less  all  his  interior  otliei-rs,  who  i 
the  remoter  provinces,  tVom  whence  the  com])laints  ol'  the  peopl 
are  less  liUely  to  reach  him,  can  exercise  their  tyrann\-  with  miK 
more  satVtN .  lUit  the  luiro])ean  colonii's  in  America  are  mci 
remoti'  than  the  most  distant  i)ro\inces  ot'  the  i^reatcst  em])iii 
which  had  e\er  heen  known  belore.  The  n'<)vei'nmenl  of  tlii 
I^nnlish  colonies  is  perhaps  the  oid\-  one  which,  since  the  wori 
l)ei;an,  could  ;j;i\e  pei'l'ect  secnritv  to  the  inhabitants  of  s')  \(i 
distant  a  pi"ovince.  'V\\k.'  adniinistr.ition  ol'  the  French  colonic- 
ho\\(.'\er,  has  alwaxs  bei-n  conducted  with  moi'e  <;entli'ness  aii^ 
moderation  than  that  of  the  ,Spai,ish  and  I'ortiii^niese.  Tli:- 
superioiitN  ot"  conduct  is  suitable  both  to  the  chaiacter  of  th 
I''rench  nation,  and  to  what  torms  the  character  of  every  natini:, 
the  nature  of  their  government,  which,  thouuh  arbitrary  an 
violent  in  comparison  with  that  of  (iieat  Britain,  is  lethal  an 
tree  in  coniparison  with  those  of  Spain  and  INjrtui^al. 

It  is  in  the  i)ro^ress  of  the  North  American  colonies,  however, 
that  the  superioritv  of  the  I'^n^lish  policy  chiellv  appears,  'riu 
proj^ress  of  the  su^ar  colom'es  of  France  has  been  at  least  equal, 
perhaps  superioi',  to  that  of  the  Ljreater  part  of  those  of  I'^nj^laiul: 
and  yet  the  suij^ar  colonies  of  EnL!;Iand  enjoy  a  free  jjjovernmeii' 
nearlv  of  the  same  kind  with  that  which  takes  ])lace  in  her  coin- 
nies  of  North  America.  Hut  the  su^ar  colonies  of  I'rance  are  n  '. 
(.liscourtigcd,  like  those  of  l'2n<4hm(l,  from  rellnin«;-  their  o\\: 
su<i^ar  ;  and,  what  is  of  still  greater  importance,  the  genius  i' 
their  government  naturally  introduces  a  better  management  <•: 
their  negro  slaves. 

In  all  European  coloiues  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane  is  carrin! 
on  bv  negro  slaves.  The  constitution  of  those  wdio  have  beci: 
born  in  the  temperate  climate  of  I'kirope  could  not,  it  is  sup- 
posed, support  the  labor  of  digging  the  ground  uiuler  theburni:i. 
sun  of  the  West  Indies;  and  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane,  as  i: 
is  managed  at  ])resent,  is  all  hand  lalxjr,  though,  in  the  (jpinioi! 
«^f  manv,  the  drill  plough  might  be  introduced  into  it  with  great 
ail  vantage.      But,    as    the    profit    and    success  of   the  cultivation 


\v 

th 
th 


11 


col  (>\I  \I.    I't  M  li'\-    (  )!•'    l'.l'I<(  »ri'. 


iiK-r.    ii;itiir;ill 
!.■(.'.      I'liiliT  a!. 
c;iplt;il  than    1 

isfll     (.'.111    IIC'V  I. 

ilrr  dl'  jiistki 
Llic  capital  lii- 
IVkhts,  wlio  ii 
^  1)1'  tin-  pcopli 
u)v  with  iiiiu' 
•rie'a  an-  iiidi 
X'atcst  cnipiri- 
niiiKMit  of  tilt 
iiK'c  the  worl.i 

Ills     of    Si)     W'\\ 

cMich  C()Ii)tiii.v 

^CMlt  Ic'lR'SS     ail 

iii^-iK'sc.      Thi- 

lai-actcr  of  tlii 
every  nation, 
ai'hitrarv    an! 

1.  is   lethal   aiii 

al. 

ies,  however, 

)pears.     Tlu 

It  least  eqnal, 

of  l"2nL;'l:m(l; 

ifovernnieir 

c  in  iier  coin- 

Vance  are  iin: 

H'    their  owi: 

the  genius  ot 

ana<4"enient  ni 

ane  is  carricti 
lo  have  heir. 
:)t,  it  is  sup- 
•r  the  bnrni'.i;' 
ir-cane,  as  it 
n  the  (jpinii)ii 
it  with  <;Te:i; 
e  cultivation 


wliich  i:>  carried  on  h\  nutans  of  cattle.  (Ii'pi'iul  \i'iy  n'.uch  upon 
the  <''oo(l  niana'41'iuent  ol"  those  cattli'  ;  so  tlu'  piolit  and  success  ot 
thiU  which  isc-.nrietl  on  by  slaves,  nnist  dcpi-nd  i-ipi.ill\  u|)on  the 
good  nianancniiiit  nl'  those  slaves;  and  in  the  ^ood  niaua'^emeiit 
of  their  slases  the  i'liaich  planters.  1  think  it  is  nener.dly  allow  ed, 
are  snpeiiiir  to  the  l!nL;li>-h.  The  law,  so  {'av  as  it  _i,dves  some 
we.ak  nrotiction  to  the  sl.ivi'  against  the  violence  ot"  his  master,  is 
likeh  ti>  i'e  lu'tter  executed  in  a  colony  w  heie  tlu-  i^oxi-nnneiit  is 
in  a  uieat  ineasure  arhitrarw  than  in  om-  w  here  it  is  alto;4elher 
free.  In  cmtv  country  wlieie  the  niitortunate  law  ol"  slaseiy  is 
estahlishi'd.  till'  magistrate,  w  hen  he  protects  the  sla\e,  inter- 
meddles in  some  measure  iii  the  management  of  the  private 
propel  Iv  ot  the  master;  and,  in  a  tii-e  country,  whei'e  the  master 
is  perhaps  either  a  mi'mher  ot  the  colon\  assemhlw  or  an  elector 
of  such  a  memliLi'.  Ik'  dare  imt  do  this  luit  with  the  greatest  cau- 
tion and  circumspection.  'Idie  respect  which  he  is  ohli^ed  to 
pav  to  the  ma.>ter  lenders  it  more  dillicult  tor  him  to  protect  the 
slave.  Hut  in  a  coimtrv  where  the  j^oNernmeiit  is  in  a  iLjreat  meas- 
ure aihitiars .  \\  here  it  is  usual  for  the  magistrate  to  intermeddle 
even  in  the  management  of  the  pi  ivate  property  of  indi\  iduals,  and 
to  .send  them,  perhaps,  a  Icttrc  ifc  caclict  it"  they  do  not  manatee  it 
accordin;^  to  his  likiiiLj.  it  is  much  easiei'  t"or  him  t()  Ljive  some 
protection  to  the  slave  ;  and  common  humanity  iiaturallv  disposes 
him  to  do  so.  'Piu'  protection  of  the  magistrate  renders  the  slave 
less  contemptilile  in  the  eves  of  his  master,  who  is  therel)\' 
induced  to  coiisiiler  him  \\  ith  more  re<j^ard.  and  to  treat  him  with 
more  gentleness.  (jJentle  usai^e  renders  the  shn'c  not  owXx  more 
faithful,  hut  more  intelli'j^ent,  and  therefore,  u[)on  a  double 
account,  more  uset"ul.  He  approaches  more  to  the  condition 
of  a  t'ree  servant,  and  may  possess  some  de_i,nee  of  inte<^rit\'  and 
attachment  to  his  master's  interest. — virtues  which  fiet|uentl\- 
beloiiLi"  to  I'rec  servants,  but  which  ne\er  can  belong-  to  a  slave, 
who  is  treated  as  slaves  commonly  are  in  countries  where  the 
master  is  peitectiv  free  and  secure. 

That  the  condition  of  a  slave  is  better  under  an  arbitrar\-  than 
Vinder  a  free  <^overnment,  is,  I  believe,  supported  1)\-  the  historv 
of  all  a<^es  and  nations.  In  the  l<.oman  historv  the  iiist  time  we 
read  of  tlie  maj^istrate  interposin;^-  to  protect  the  sla\e  from  the 
violence  of  his  master  is  under  the  em[)erors.  W  hen  X'edius 
Pollio,  in  the  Augustus,  ordered  one  of  his  slaves,  who  hatl  com- 
mitted a  slight  fault,  to   be  cut   into  pieces,  and   thrown  into  his 


28 


SKI.Ii    1  |(  »\S. 


Ilsh-pond  ill  (inlcr  to  ll'i'd  lii>  llslu's.  ilu- cinpi'inr  coniin.'inilid  him 
witli  iii(lii;-ii;iti(>ii.    to  (.'iiKiiuipiiU-  imim'(ii;iti'i\',  iiul    onlv  tli;il  sl;i\ 
lillt  mII    till-  otiu'l  s  lli;it    lirloii^id    to  him.      I    ndcf  thf  ii  piililic    ii 
m;i'^Mstr;itf  I'oiild  h;i\i'   h;id  ;iiil!ioi  it\'  I'lioii^h  to   prolt'cl  ihi'  slavr, 
iiiikIi  h'ss  to  |)iiiiish  thi'  HKist^'i'. 

Thf  stfuk,  it  is  to  hr  olisiTwd.  whiidi  has  iinprovi'd  tlu-  sii'.^,:' 
coloiiiL's  ot'  I'laiui'.  part  iiidarlx  thi-  ;_;rc'at  coloin  olSt.  I)(nniii'4n, 
lias  hi'C'ii  laisi'd  ahiiost  t'litiivK'  iVoin  tiic  juradtial  iinpio\  cimii' 
and  ciihi\atioii  of'  thosi-  cfdoiiii's.  It  lias  ht-iMi  ahiiost  aUo^cthfi 
tiic  prodiiLi-  ot'  thr  soil  and  ol"  tiic  iivJiisliv  of  the  colonists,  nr, 
what  comi's  to  tlu'  same  thinn'.  the  priec  of  that  produce  yrad- 
iially  aecumnlatcd  1)\-  L;'(>od  inaiia'^i'inent.  and  einplo\i'd  in  raisin, 
a  still  L^reater  pioduci'.  IWit  thi-  stock  whicli  has  iinpiowd  ;iii.: 
cnlti\att-d  the  sni^ar  colonies  of  JCn^land  has,  a  L;r(-'at  pait  of  it, 
been  sent  ont  iVnn)  JjiL^land,  and  has  li\  no  nu-ans  hccn  altn. 
}.'ether  the  piodnce  of  the  soil  and  indnstr\  of  tlu-  colonists.  Thi 
prosp(Tit\'  of  tlu'  lCn;j;Iish  snL^ar  colonies  has  lieen.  in  a  ,q;re:it 
ineasnre,  owin^  to  tlu-  |j;reat  liclu's  of  lOn^land,  ot' which  a  jkm' 
has  o\  (.'illow  ed.  ii"  one  ma\  sa\  so,  npon  those  coionies.  15ii' 
the  prospciit\  of  the  sn^ai'  colonics  ot'  h'rance  has  been  (.'ntirel'i 
owinj;'  to  the  iijood  condnct  oi  the  colonists,  which  must  theiv- 
fore  have  had  some  snperioiity  o\ef  that  of  the  ICni^lish  ;  aii(i 
this  suiieiioiity  has  been  reniafked  in  nothing'  so  imich  as  in  tin. 
tfood  nianaiLJcment  of  their  sla\es. 

Such  ha\'e  been  the  general  outlines  oi'  the  policv  of  the  din'ir- 
ent  lun'opean  nations  with  rej^ard  to  their  colonies. 

The  policy  of  Euro|ie,  therei'ore,  has  verv  little  to  boast  nt', 
either  in  the  original  establishment.  f)r.  so  I'ar  as  concerns  their 
intei'nal  government,  in  the  snl)se([uent  prosperitv  of  the  colonic" 
of  America. 

I'^ollv  and  ininsiice  seem  to  ha\e  been  the  principles  whii'l; 
presided  over  and  directed  the  lirsl  project  of  establishini>"  thuM 
colonies  ;  the  folly  of  huntin;^  alter  l^old  and  silver  mines,  am! 
the  injustice  of  coveting"  the  possession  of  a  countrv  whose  harm- 
less  natives,  far  from  havin<^  ever  injured  the  ])eople  of  Iuu"o|)l'. 
liad  received  the  first  ailventurers  with  every  mark  of  kinihics-s 
and  hospitality. 

The  adventurers,  indeed,  wlio  formed  some  of  the  later  esta!'- 
lishments,  joined,  to  the  chimerical  project  of  HiuliuL;  j^old  antl  sil- 
ver mines,  other  motives  more  reasonable  and  more  laudable  ;  hui 
even  these  motives  do  very  little  honor  to  the  policv  of  Europe, 


Up 


(('I.nMAI,    rt'l.K  V    OK    j;l  Koi'i;. 


39 


in.'iniU'il  liini. 
nl\  tli;il  sl;i\i 
i-  tt'|)iil)lii'  11'^ 
i\{  till'  shiNr, 

I'll  the  sti'^.i; 
>t.  Dnin'muM, 
iiiiprnN  (.'iiu  ir 

).sl  ;lll(>H(.'tllrl 
colonists,  01, 
roiliict'  \fV:\i\- 
M'd  ill  niisii);,' 
mprowil  ;mi! 
•at  part  ot"  it. 
lis  liriMi  all'i- 
loiiisls.  Till 
11.  ill  a  '^wy 
'  wliicli  a  pai; 
oionic's.  l)ii! 
hi'i'ii  c'litiirl} 

1     lUllst     llllTi.- 

ICn^iish  ;  ami 
iich  as  in  tin 

ot"  tlic  (liHir- 

lo  boast  nt, 
OlK'lTUS  tlicii 
"  tlic  coloiiii- 

ciplcs  wliii'!: 
isirm;4  tlioM.' 
1"  mines,  aiiii 
whose  harm- 
e  of  I'^ni'opi'. 
of  kiiulnc- 

e  later  estal'- 
^old  and  ^il- 
andahle  ;  l>ui 

r)f  Europe. 


'I'lie  I-ii^li-'h  rmitans.  ris|r;Miied  at  hoiiie.  tied  lor  frei-i  It  mi  to 
AmeiiiM.  an  I  estahli^iied  thert-  the  lonr  l;o\ I'mmeiil^  ot'  New 
En<;laiiil.  'I"hi'  Mii'^lish  Catholie>.  treati'<l  with  niiuh  'greater 
injiistiei'.  e-tahjisju'd  that  of  Maivlaiid;  tin-  (^uaki'i'^.  that  of 
Penl;^\  1\  ania.  I'he  l*oitii'4iiese  Ji'Ws,  i)er^eeiiii'd  1)\  the  Iiupiisi- 
tioii.  ->t I  i PI )cd  ol"  their  toitiiiu's.  and  banished  to  |*ia/il.  iiitrodiiei'il, 
by  their  evaniple,  some  sort  ol"  onlrr  and  indiisli\  amoiii;  the 
transported  l"idoiis  and  -tiinnpel-^.  b\  w  hoin  that  eohmy  wa^  ori<j;i- 
nall'.  peoplrd.  and  l.in'^ht  tlu'm  tlu-  eiiltiiie  of  ijn'  ^ll^:ll•-ealle. 
Upon  all  these  dill"(.'r<.Mit  oeeasioiis,  it  was.  not  tlie  wisdom  and 
poliiN.  bill  the  disorder  and  injiistiee.  of'  the  I'.iiropiMii  j4(>\e'rn- 
mt'iils.  w  hieh    peopKd   and   enlti\ated    Anuiiea. 

Ill  elleetnat  in^  soiiii'  of  thi'  mo^i  impoitant  ol  tlu'se  I'stablish- 
ments.  tlu'  diirereiil  l;o\  (.'iinneiils  of'  ICiiiopi'  had  as  little  meiil  as 
in  [)roifetiii'4  them.  I"he  eoiupiest  of  Me\ieo  was  the  project, 
not  ot'  the  eoinuil  of  Spain,  but  of  a  j^'overnor  ol'  Cuba  ;  and  it  was 
effeetiiated  b\  the  spirit  of  the  bold  ad\entii!i'r  to  whom  it  was 
entnistt'd.  in  spitt.-  ol"  i-\er\  thinj^  wliieh  that  L;o\einor,  who  soon 
repented  ot"  |ia\  iiiLi'  trusted  siieh.  a  person,  eould  do  to  thwart  it. 
The  eoiupierois  ot'  Chili  and  Pern,  and  of  almost  all  tlu'  other 
Spanish  settlements  upon  tlu'  eontineiit  of  America,  carried  out 
witli  ihem  no  other  ])ublic  encomaL;ement ,  but  a  j^eiieral  ])er- 
missioii  to  make  settleinenls  and  coiniiiests  in  the  name  of  the 
kinjj  ot"  Spain.  Those  adventures  were  all  at  the  private  risk  and 
expense  ot"  the  ad\  ent  iireis.  The  L;;o\ernment  of  Spain  con- 
tributed scarce  an\thiii;4'  to  an\-  of  them,  d'ha!  of  JCn^Iand  con- 
tributed as  little  towards  ell'ecluatiuL;-  the  establishnv.'iit  of  some 
of  its  most  im[)ortanl  colonies  in  North  ^\merica. 

"When  those  establishments  were  etl'ectuated.  and  had  become 
80  considerable  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  mother  countr\-, 
the  lir-t  remilations  wliicli  she  made  w  ith  re^'ard  to  them  had 
always  in  view  to  secure  to  herself  the  monopol\-  of  their  com- 
merce ;  to  coiiline  their  market,  and  to  enlarge  her  own  at  their 
expense,  and.  consecpiently,  rather  to  damp  and  discourage,  than 
to  quicken  and  forward,  the  course  of  their  })rosperit\  .  In  the 
difleient  ways  in  which  this  mono))ol\'  has  been  exercised,  con- 
sists one  of  the  most  essential  dilVerences  in  the  policv  of  the 
diflerent  j-airopean  nations  with  rci^ard  to  their  colonies.  The 
best  of  them  all,  that  of  I'^nj^land.  is  only  somewhat  less  illiberal 
and  opi^ressixe  than  that  of  anv  of  the  rest. 

In  w  hat  way,  therefore,  has  the   policy   o['  Europe  contributed 


.  X' 


&' 


."^0 


SKM'CIIONS. 


filliiM"  to  tliL'  llrst  I'stalilislimfiit,  or  to  tlu-  picsL-iit  i^randrur  ot"  tlu; 
colonifs  of  AiiK'iica  ?  In  oir-  wav,  and  in  our  wav  onlv.  it  has 
ciiiitiihutc'd  a  Ljood  dfal.  Mir<^i/a  viriini  A/.i/cr!  It  Itfcd  and 
I'ornicd  till'  men  \\  lio  wfie  capahlc  of  acliir\inL:^  sui.h  i^icat 
actions,  and  of  laving  the  fonndalion  of  so  j^rcat  an  empire;  and 
there  is  no  other  (piaitei"  of  the  worhl  of  which  tlie  policy  i^ 
capable  of  forming;,  or  has  ever  actnallv  and  in  fact  formed,  such 
men.  'J'he  colonies  owe  to  the  jjolicv'  of  ICnrope  the  education 
and  i^reat  views  of  their  active  and  enterprising-  founders  ;  and 
some  of  the  greatest  and  most  important  ol"lhem,  so  far  us  c(jn- 
cerns  their  internal  <^o\  ei'nment,  cnve  to  it  scarce  anxthing-  else. 


iiii;  (;i;i:ai'  i\vi;\ri(>N">. 


31 


uk'ur  of  tlii; 
Kulv,  it  Ii;c> 
It  l)i"c(l  aiiil 
sikIi  inTcal 
inpirc  ;  and 
ic  policy  I-i 
)nmtl,  siu'li 
L'  education 
mdc'i  s  :  aiul 
I  far  as  coii- 
Wu\<x  else. 


III. 


TIIF,    GRKAT    IWllNTIONS. 
I'kom   \V.\i.i'or,i:"s   IIistokv  m   V.sr.j.WD,  \'oi..   I.,  v\\  50-76. 

T\\c  inanuracturiiii;  iiidiistrii's  of  the  country  liad  never  previ- 
ousK  experienced  so  marvellous  a  dcxelopnient.  The  hum  ot 
the  workshop  was  heard  in  places  which  had  pre\  iously  only 
been  di>turl)i'd  In'  tin.'  w  liirr  of  the  grouse  ;  and  new  forces, 
Uiuheanied  of  a  ceiitur\'  before,  weie  em])lo\ed  to  assist  the 
proL;re>s  of  production.  The  trade  of  the  I  idled  Kinj^dom 
ac(|uired  an  importance  which  it  had  never  pre\  iously  enjoyed, 
and  the  inannfactuiinu-  classes  ohtained  an  intluencc  which  they 
had  ne\ci' before  known.  The  land-owners  were  slowlv  losini^ 
the  nionopoK'  of  power  which  tlu-v  had  enjoved  for  centinies. 
Tradeis  and  manntactnrers  were  dailv  ohtainiuL;'  fresji  wealth  and 
inlhieiice.  A  new  ljiL,dand  was  supplantinj^'  the  old  countrv  ; 
and  a^'riculture,  the  sole  business  of  our  foix'lathers,  was  L,n'a(lu- 
allv  becoming"  of  less  importance  than  trade.  In  1793.  the  hr>t 
year  of  the  war,  the  oilicial  value  of  all  the  imports  into  IJritain 
was  less  than  t'20.000.000.  In  1S15.  the  \eai-  of  Waterloo,  it 
exceeded  £3  1 ,000.000.  in  179-,  the  oilicial  value  of  iJritish  and 
Irish  exports  was  on  1\'  £'18,000.000  :  it  rose  in  iN  i  ^  to  £.|i  .000,000. 
The  olhcial  \alues,  however.  ;4ive  onl\'  a  \er\  im])erlect  idea  of 
the  extent  of  our  ex|)ort  trade.  Tliev  are  based  on  prices  (ixed 
so  tai-  back  as  1696.  and  at]()rd,  therefore,  an  inaccurate  test  of 
the  extent  of  our  tiade.  Xo  attempt  was  made  to  ascertain  the 
declared  or  real  \alue  of  the  exports  till  tlie  \ear  17(>S, 
when  it  slightly  excei-ded  £33.ocx).ooo.  The  declared  \alue 
of  the  exports  of  British  and  Irish  produce  in  iSi;;  ex- 
ceeded .£49.000.000.  The  rise  in  the  \alue  of  the  expoits  and 
imports  was  attributable  to  man\-  causes.  The  predomi- 
nance of  the  Uritish  at  sea  had  dri\en  ever\-  enem\-  from 
the  ocean,  and  had  enabled  IJritish  nieichants  to  pl\-  their  trade 
in  comparali\e  safety.  The  numerous  posses.sions,  which  the 
British  had  acquiied  in  every  quarter  of  the  <,dobe.  had  pro\  ided 
them  v.^'h  customers  in  all  parts  of  the  worlil  ;  and  the  most 
ci\  ili/ed,  as  well  as  the  most    savage,  of  nations  were  purchasin;^- 


32 


SF.i.Kc  rioxs. 


the  i)ti)(liici' <)l' tliL'   loiiiiis   ol"  Maiiclit'stcr  and   oi'  tlic   factoiics 


)iriiiin''h;!m. 


.WW  tlir  taxatinn  wliK'li  tlif  war  had  lU'ccsMtat 


had  ^liniulati'd  the   mamilacturiTs   to   irt-sh   cNcrtioiu 


1' 


u-   im 


chants    wfic    (.■i)iitiiiii;dl\     (hscovcrin^    iVcsh     outlets    for    H 
tiadc  ;    thi'  niaiuilact'i)"L'is  were  eoiistanlK    eiieoma^-ed  to  in 


ril 


ere.i- 


thi'ir  i)ro(Uu 


W" 


»oI    was    the    most   aiieient   and   most   imnoiiant  of  Iji', 


niannhietnres.      Ciislf)ni     seemed     lo     point     to     tlie     peimane;  • 
sn|)erioiit\   ol'  the  woollei  le.    dhe  Chancellor  of  I^n;_;land  - 

on  a  sack  (jf  wool  ;   aiu'  w  men  spoke  of  the  staple  trade,  tlit 

al\\a\s    referred    to    the    ti'adi'    in   wool.       l'\>r  centuries   Briti- 
sovereij^ns  and  Uiilish  statesmen  had.  after  their  own  fashion,  an 
accordiiiL;'   to    their   o\\  n  ideas.    acti\el\-    piomoted  this  particulr 
industrw       J^^dwaid    IJl.    had    induced  Idemish    wea\ers   to   sen, 
in    this    coimtr\'.      'Idie    Ri'storatiou     Parliament     prohihited   tlu 
c\])ortation  ol' Uritish  wool,  and  had   ordered   that   the   \erv  {\v:\ . 
slionld     he     interred     in  woollen     shrouds.      The     manulactuiii- 
spread  o\er  the  I'litire  kinL,^^)!!!.      Wherever  there  was  a  nnniii!, 
stream  to  turn  their  mill,  iheie   was   at   an\   rate  the  possiI)ilit\    ■: 
a    woollen    t"ac(or\  .      Norwich,    with    its    contii^iious    villaii^e    > 
Worsted,  was  the  chii-l"  seat   of  the  trade.        Uut  \'ork  and  Ur;!!,- 
ford.  Worcestershire   and   ( doucestershire,  Manchesler   and  Kn- 
dal.  were  lai'i^eh' dependent  on  if. 

The   ste|)s,    which    Parliament    took   to  promote   this   particnl 
industr\,  were  not  alwa\s   \t'i\   wise;    in  one  ))oiut  the\'  were  n 
\erv    iust.      Irel  ind.    in    man\-   respects,  could    ha\e   competed  i: 
advantaL;eous  terurs  with  the  woollen  manufacturers  of  I'^n^'lani!, 
I-ji;jlish    jealouss    piohihited    in   consecpience    the    importation  '■' 
Iiish   mauutacturi'd   woolleri  ^■<lods.      The  result  liardlv  answei\  : 
the  san^uini'  anticipations  of  tlu'  seltish  senators  who  had  secure: 
it.      The  Irish,  instead   of  sending;   their   fleeces   to   he  worked  iii' 
in  (iieat  Pritaiu.  simioolcd  them,  in  return  for  contraband  spirit-, 
to  I'lance.      I'.U'^land    tailed   to   obtain   anv    larL^c   addition   to   lie 
law   material;   and  Iiehmd  was  driven    into  closer  communicati" 
w  ilh  the  hereditary  foe  of  I'^niiland.      The  loss  of  the  Irish  Heecc- 
w  as  the  nioie  sei"ions  tVom  another  cause.      The  home  supph  '■! 
w  ool  had  oriiiinallv  been  abundant  and  jjjood  ;   liut  its  prodnctinii. 
at    the  commencement    of  the    centuiv.    was  not    increasing;   ;b 


ra| 

\Vi 

W( 

in  I 
toil 
wtl 
fr. 

th 

COl| 

of 
du 
tax 

rui 

coi 


'  Mcrullooh's  "  Coinnu'rc-i;il    DirtiniKiry,"   iiiipnrts  ;iiid  expnrts ;  cf..   hnwcvor,    Pntin 
ni;ri>s  iif  llic  N;itiiiii,"  p.  t^T,  wluri'  till'  tiuuri'S  are  sliulitlv  dillcruiit.   Notliiiijr  is  m  : 


Prni;ri 


iliiriiiilt  IIkui  m  :is((.Tl;iiii  i1r- ciiri-fct  li<'mi-s. 


THE    c;RKAT    INVKNTloXS. 


^    1 


I 


K"   iacloiirs  i- 

111    lU'Cl'ssitilti. 

i>.      The   nn-. 
ts    for    l{ritiv 
;(.'(1  to  inciXMv 

lilt    of    lilll^liv 

11'  pci'miiiic'i:' 
)l"  I'^nj^land  s,; 
l^lc  trade,  tlui 
itiirics  liriiiv 
II  tashion,  an '. 
this  particul:r 
ixcrs  to  SL-iU 
)roliiI)itt'(l  till 
I  he  \cry  (lf;i; 
niamitacturcr- 
kVas  a  rimniii. 
|)o.ssihilit\-  i; 
us  vilhii^c  I 
>rk  and  Urad- 
^Icl•  and  Kei!- 

lis  |)articiil;i: 
u-y  were  ii  ' 
eoinpeled  (i. 
ot'  ICnj^hiiii!, 
iipoiialiou  i- 
dl\  aiisvveiv: 
)  had  secinvi' 
>e  worived  uv 
ihaiid  spiiilN 
itioii  to  hi' 
niminicalini: 
Irish  fleni.- 
ic  .supph  '■: 
l)rothictinn. 
creasinc:    :i- 


owoviT,    Pnrttr- 
N'litliiiijr  is  III 'ii 


rapidly  as  th(>  deiiiaiid  tor  it:  the  fiiialit\-  of  honie-^rown  wool 
was  rapidlv  deteiioratiiin".  Tin-'  same  sheep  do  not  prochiee  hotli 
wool  and  imittoii  in  the  "greatest  perlection.  I-veiy  improvement 
in  their  meat  is  ctlected  at  tlic  cost  of  their  lleeee.  Ihi^hMi  mut- 
ton was  lietter  than  it  had  ever  been;  liut  En^lisli  manufacturers 
were  compelled  to  mix  forei^;!!  with  nati\e  wnol.  Had  trade  l-een 
free  this  residt  would  have  been  of  little  moment.  The  ICn^lisii 
could  have  casiK  ohtained  an  ample  sii[)])lv  of  raw  material  iVoin 
the  hills  of  Spain  and  other  countries.  IJut,  at  the  very  time  at 
which  foreii^n  wool  became  indispensable,  the  necessities  of  the 
Countrv.  or  the  ij^norance  of  her  llnanciers.  led  to  the  im|)osition 
of  a  heav\-  imi^oi  t  dutv  on  \vool.  .AddinL,^!)!!.  in  iS(j2.  levied  a 
dutv  u|)on  it  of  ^.s■.  3*/.  the  cwt.  ;  \'aiisittai"t.  in  I'^i^.  raised  the 
tax  to  6s.  S(A  The  follv  of  the  protectionists  had  done  much  to 
ruin  the  wool  trade.  l>ut  the  evil  already  done  was  small  in 
comparison  with  that  in  store. 

Nowitlistaiidin<;".  however,  the  restrictions  on  the  wool  trade, 
the  woollen  industry  was  of  Li"ieat  im])ortance.  In  iScjo,  Law.  as 
counsel  to  the  manutacturers,  declau'd,  in  an  address  to  the 
liouse  of  Lords,  that  6(30.000  packs  oi'  wool,  worth  £6.600,000. 
were  produced  amuiallv  in  England  and  Wales,  and  that  1.500,- 
000  persons  were  emplo\ed  in  the  manufacture.  \\\\i  these  ti<j[- 
iires,  as  McCuUoch  has  shown,  are  undoubtedh'  threat  e\a:L^"<jera- 
tions.'  leather  more  than  400.000  packs  of  wool  were  availalile 
for  inaiuifactiiriuL;'  purposes  at  the  C(jmmencement  of  the  centur\-  ; 
more  than  nine-tenths  ot  these  were  produced  at  home  ;  and  some 
350.000  or  400. CX30  persons  were  probably  eniploved  in  the  trade. 
The  jjjreat  woollen  industry  still  deserved  the  name  of  our  staple 
trade;  Init  it  did  not  merit  the  exaj^tre rated  descriptions  which 
persons,  who  slioiild  have  known  better,  applied  to  it. 

If  the  stajile  trade  of  the  countrv  had  oiiL^inalh-  been  in  woollen 
goods  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  centurv.  cotton  was 
rapidly  gaininj^  upon  wool.  Cotton  had  been  used  in  the 
extreme  East  and  in  the  extreme  West  tVoiii  the  earliest  periods 
of  which  we  have  any  records.  The  Sjianiards.  on  their  discov- 
ery of  America,  found  the  Mexicans  clothed  in  cotton.  ••  There 
are  trees,"  Herodotus  had  written.  neaii\-  2,000  \ears  before, 
''  which  Ljrow  wild  there  (in  India),  the  fruit  whereof  is  a  wool 
cxceedinijj     in     lieauty     and     goodness     that     of     sheep.       The 

'  "  McCullcicli,"  ad  verb.     Wool  ;   l'<irtcT's  "  I'rojjri-ss  oftlic  Nation,"  i>p.  I7'>-I75. 


' 


I 


V 


34 


SELECTIONS. 


iiiitivcs  make  their  clotlies  of  tliis  tree  \vof)l."'  But  tliouj^Ii  the 
use  of  cotton  liad  been  known  from  the  earliest  ai^es,  lioth  in 
India  and  America,  no  cotton  j^oods  \vere  imported  into  lun'opr; 
and  in  the  ancient  worhl  liotli  ricii  and  i)oor  were  clothed  in 
silk,  linen,  and  wool.  Tlie  iiulustri<nis  Moors  introduced  cotton 
into  Spain.  Many  centuries  afterwards  cotton  was  imported 
into  Italv,  Saxonv.  and  the  Low  Countries.  Isolated  tiom  tlic 
rest  of  Europe,  with  little  wealth,  little  industrv,  and  no  )-oa(N; 
rent  by  civil  commotions;  the  English  were  the  last  people  in 
Europe  to  introduce  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  into  their 
own  homes. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  indeed,  cotton 
goods  were  occasionally  mentioned  in  the  Statute  Hook,  and  tlic 
manufacture  of  the  cottons  of  Manchester  was  regulated  by  Acl> 
passed  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.  and  EIi/al)eth, 
But  tliere  seem  to  be  good  reasons  for  concluding  that  Manclu>- 
ter  cottons,  in  tlie  time  of  the  Tudors,  were  woollen  goods,  aiiti 
did  not  consist  of  cotton  at  all.  More  tiian  a  centnr\'  elapsed 
before  any  considerable  trade  in  cotton  attracted  the  attention  (it 
the  legislature.  The  woollen  manuiacturers  complained  that 
people  were  dressing  their  children  in  printed  cottons  ;  ami 
Parliament  was  actually  persuaded  to  prohibit  the  introduction 
of  Iiulian  printed  calicoes.  Even  an  Act  of  Parliament,  liow- 
ever,  was  unable  to  extinguish  the  growing  taste  for  Imlian 
cf)ttons.  The  ladies,  according  to  the  complaint  of  an  oh! 
writer,  expected  "  to  do  what  they  please,  to  say  what  tluv 
please,  and  wear  what  they  please."  The  taste  for  cotton  led  to 
the  introduction  of  calico-printing  in  London  ;  Parliament,  in 
order  to  encourage  the  new  trade,  was  induced  to  sanction  tlie 
importation  of  plain  cotton  cloths  from  India  under  a  dutv.  Tlie 
demand,  which  was  thus  created  for  calicoes,  probably  promoted 
their  manufacture  at  home  ;  and  Manchester.  Bf)lton,  Frome,  ami 
other  ])laces,  gradually  acquired  fresh  vitality  I'rom  the  creation 
of  a  new  history. 

Many  years,  liowever,  passed  before  the  trade  attained  anythiii2; 
but  the  slenderest  proportions.  In  the  year  if>97  onlv  i,c)J(>.- 
359  lbs.  of  cotton  wool  were  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom. 
In  the  year  1751  only  2.976,610  lbs.  were  imported.  The  otHcial 
value  of  coilon  gootls  exported  amounted   in  the  former  year  to 

'  Riiwlinsdii's  "  Hcroilotus,"  vdI.  ii.  p.  411,  TIic  Geniian  name  for  cottcin  is  RaumwciUt 
—  tree  wool. 


THE    CRFAT    INVF,\Tr(^\S. 


JO 


m 


:  thoui^li  the 
i<;cs.  liotli  ill 
nto  Eiiropi.': 
re  clothed  in 
diiccd  cottdii 
as  iiiipoilc'i! 
ted  t'lom  the 
(1  no  roa(N; 
st  people  ill 
)ds  into  their 

deed,   cotton 

ook,  and  tlie 

ated  bv  Aeb 

id  Elizabeth. 

Kit  Manches- 

n  i;()(Hls,  ami 

tnry   elapsed 

attention  (it 

olained     that 

•ottons  ;    and 

introduction 

nent,    how- 

for    Intlian 

of   an  (dd 

what   they 

otton  led  to 

iament,    in 

anction   the 

hity.     The 

V  promoted 

"roine,  and 

the  creation 

cd  anythiiii:; 
)nly  i,97('.- 
Kingdom. 
The  ofHcial 
iner  year  to 


n  is  Baumwnlle 


onl\-  £:,(ji^  ;  in  the  latter  year  to  only  £'-[5,986.  At  the  j^resent 
time  Britain  annnall\- ])nrehasi's  about  1.500.000.000  lbs.  of  cotton 
\\,)(<1.  .**<he  aiinnallv  disjioses  of  cotton '4oo(l>  worth  £'60. 000. 000. 
The  import  trade  is  >,(>()  times  as  laiLje  as  it  was  in  1751  :  the 
value  of  tlie  e\poit>  lias  been  increased  1.300  told.  The  woild 
has  never  seen,  in  any  similar  period,  so  prodigious  a  growth  of 
mannfactiuing  industry.  lUit  llie  trade  has  not  luerely  grown 
from  an  int'ant  into  a  giant;  its  conditions  have  been  C(^ncurrently 
re\i)hitioni/ed.  I'p  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century  cotton 
LToods  were  lealh'  never  made  at  all.  The  so-called  cotton  manu- 
factures  \vere  a  combination  of  wool  or  linen  and  cotton.  No 
Englishman  had  been  able  to  produce  a  cotton  tiu-ead  strong 
enough  t"or  the  waip  :  and  even  the  cotton  manutacturers  them- 
selves appear  to  have  despaired  of  doing  so.  They  induced  Par- 
liament in  I  7,V'  I"  lepeal  the  prohibition,  which  still  encumbered 
the  Statute  JJook.  against  wearing  j^riiUed  calicoes;  but  there- 
peal  was  gianted  on  the  curious  condition  ••  that  tiie  wa.rp  thereof 
be  entireh-  linen  yarn."  Parliament  no  doubt  intended  by  this 
condition  to  check  the  importation  of  Indian  goods  without  iiUer- 
tering  with  the  home  manufa^'turers.  The  superior  skill  of  the 
Indian  manutacturers  enabled  them  to  use  cotton  for  a  warp; 
while  clums\'  woil-;mat\ship  made  the  unc  oI"  cotton  as  a  warp  un- 
attainable at  home. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurv.  then,  a  piece  of  cotton 
cloth,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  had  ne\er  been  made  in  I'^ng- 
hind.  The  so-called  cotton  goods  were  all  made  in  the  cottages 
of  the  weavers.  The  \arn  was  carded  bv  hand;  it  was  spun  bv 
hand;  it  was  worked  into  cloth  bv  a  hand-loom.  The  weaver 
was  usualh'  the  head  of  the  lamilv  ;  liis  wife  and  luunanied 
daughters  spun  the  yarn  for  him.  .Spinning  was  the  ordinary 
occupation  of  every  girl,  and  the'  distairwas.  for  countless  centu- 
ries, the  ordinary  occupation  of  e\erv  woman.  The  occupation 
was  so  universal  that  the  distaH'  was  occasicmally  used  as  a  syno- 
nym lor  woman.  '•  Le  royaume  de  I'"rance  ne  tombe  point  en 
(juoionille.'''' 

"  See  my  rnval  master  murdered, 
Mis  crown  uMirpcd,  a  distiitf  in  the  throne." 

To  this  tlay  every  unmarried  girl   is  commonly    described    as  a 
'•  spinster." 

1  he  operation  of  weaving  was,  however,  nuich  luore  rapid  than 


:<«' 


III 
Ik 


36 


SELECTIOXS. 


tluit  of  spinninf,^.  The  weaver  coiisiimcd  more  weft  tlinn  his  own 
faniilv  could  supply  him  with  :  and  tiic  weavers  f^enerally 
ex|)ciienced  the  iirc.itest  didiculty  in  ohtaininjj^  sulVicieiit  yarn. 
vVhout  the  middle  of  the  eii^hteeiith  eeiitur\-  the  ini^enuity  of  two 
persons,  a  latliei"  and  a  son.  made  this  ditlerence  more  ap[)arenl. 
The  shuttle  had  orii^inallv  been  thrown  bv  the  hand  from  oiu' 
end  of  the  loom  to  the  other.  John  Kay,  a  native  of  Bury,  In 
his  invention  of  the  tlv-shuttle,  saved  the  weaver  from  tlT^ 
lahoi'.  The  lathe,  in  which  the  shuttle  runs,  was  len'^thcned  at 
)•  ''lends;  two  strin;^s  were  attached  to  its  opposite  ends  ;  t'.ie 
stiiHgs  were  held  by  a  pe<^  in  the  weaver's  hands,  and.  by 
plucking  the  pes^,  the  weaver  was  enabled  to  l^ive  tlie  neces- 
sary impulse  to  the  shuttle.  Robert  Kav.  Jolm  Kav's  sf)n.  adelerl 
the  drop-box,  bv  means  of  which  the  weaver  was  able  "  to  use 
.)n\-  «>,ij  of  the  three  shuttles,  each  containini(  a  ditl'erent  colored 
V,  eft.  V.  r.liout  the  trouble  of  takini;'  them  from  and  replacin<j^  them 
in  h.  ,  .  le."  Hv  means  of  these  inventions  the  producti\c 
power  of  '. 'icii  weaver  was  doubled.  Each  weaver  was  casilv 
a'  ii-  lo  pertc  '  lie  amount  of  work  which  had  pre\iously 
requirer  iw^-  •  .  i  ;  do;  and  the  spinsters  Gnnid  themschc'- 
more  hopele-^lv  dista.nceil  than  ever  in  their  ellbrts  to  supply  the 
weavers  with  weft. 

The  preparation  of  weft  was  entirelv  accomplished  bv  manual 
labor,  and  the  process  was  very  complicated.  Cardini^  and  rovin^j 
were  both  slowh'  peiiormed  with  the  aid  of  the  clumsy  imple- 
ments which  had  originally  been  invented  for  the  ])urposc. 
"  Carding  is  the  pi'ocess  to  which  the  cotton  is  sul)jected  alter  it 
has  been  opened  and  cleaned,  in  order  that  the  ilbres  of  the  wool 
may  be  disentangled,  stiaiglitened,  and  laid  parallel  with  each 
other,  so  as  to  admit  of  being  spun.  This  was  t'ormerlv  efl'ected 
bv  insti'uments  called  iiand-cards,  which  were  brushes  made  nt 
short  pieces  of  wire  instead  of  bristles,  the  wires  being  stuck  into 
a  sheet  of  leather,  at  a  certain  angle,  and  the  leather  fastened  on  a 
flat  piece  of  wood  about  twelve  inches  long  and  five  w  ide.  with  a 
handle.  The  cotton  lieing  spread  U]K)n  one  of  the  cards,  it  wa- 
repeatedlv  combed  with  another  till  all  the  fibres  were  laid 
straight,  when  it  was  stripped  otV  the  card  in  a  fleecy  roll  ready 
for  the  rover.  In  '  roving  '  the  spinner  took  the  short  fleecy 
rolls  in  which  the  cotton  was  strip|)etl  olVthe  hand-cards,  apjiliid 
them  successively  to  the  spindle,  and  whilst  with  one  haiul  she 
turned  the  wheel  and  thus  made  the  spindle    revolve,   with    the 


TIIK    CRKAT    IWKNTIONS. 


37 


<  I 


linn  his  own 
rs  yciKTallv 
HcicDt  yarn, 
uiitv  of'  two 
re  apparent, 
id  from  one 
of  Bury.  In- 
I'  from  this 
niftlicncd  at 
tc  L'lids  ;  tile 
ids,  and,  hv 
i  the  neces- 
s  son.  added 
dile  "  to  Use 
•rent  colored 
ilacin<4'  them 
J  proiliictixe 
r  was  casilv 
I  previoiislv 
1  tliemscl\e> 
o  supply  the 

bv  manna! 

and  roviii;^^ 

imsy  imple- 

ic    ])urpo>c. 

ted  after  it 

of  the  wool 

with   each 

■rly  etl'ected 

les  made  nt" 

stuck  into 

stened  on  i\ 

ide,  with  a 

irds,  it  w:i- 

were   laid 

V  roll  i-eady 

hort    Heecv 

(Is.  applied 

le   liand  ^!u 

',   with    tlic 


otiier  ^he  drew  out  the  cardinLTS.  which,  recei\  iuLT  :^  sliL,dit  twist 
fiKin  the  spindle,  were  made  into  thick  tlireads  called  rovin^s, 
and  wiiuiid  upon  tlie  spindle  so  ;is  to  foiin  cops."  In  spinning-. 
'•  the  roxiiiL;  was  spun  into  yarn  ;  the  operation  was  similar,  hut 
the  thiead  was  drawn  out  nuich  liner  and  recei\ed  much  more 
twi^t.  It  will  he  seen  that  this  instrument  only  atlmitted  of  one 
thread  Iteintr  spun  at  a  time  hy  one  pair  of  hands,  and  the  slow- 
ness i)i'  the  operation  and  conse(|uent  expensiveness  of  ihe 
varii  tbrnied  a  LJieat  obstacle  to  the  eslahlisliment  of  a  new  manu- 
facture.'' 

'IMie  trade  w:.s  in  this  humhle  and  i^rimitive  state  when  a  series 
of  extraordinarv  and  un[)arallele(i  inventions  revolutionized  the 
conditions  on  which  cotton  had  been  hitherto  prepared.  A  little 
uiDie  tlian  a  cenlurs'  a'^o  John  llarn'ieaves.  a  poor  weaver  in  tlie 
nid'4hl)nrli()od  of  iUackburn.  was  returuin^■  home  tVoni  a  lon^-  walk, 
in  \\  hicli  he  had  been  purcliasinu,-  a  further  su[)pl\'  of  varu  tor  his 
loom.  As  he  entered  his  cottage,  his  wife  fenny  accidentallv 
upset  the  spindle  which  she  was  usin;^.  Ilart^reaves  noticed  that 
tlie  spindles,  which  were  iidw  thrown  into  an  uprii^ht  ])ositioii, 
cnntinued  to  revolve,  and  that  the  thread  was  still  spimiin;:^  in  his 
wifi'"s  hand.  The  idea  immediately  occurred  to  him  tliat  it 
woidd  he  possible  to  connect  a  considerable  number  of  upriyht 
spindles  with  one  wheel,  and  thus  multijilv  the  productive 
power  of  each  spinster.  '•  He  contrived  a  frame  in  one  p;ut  of 
w  Inch  he  placed  eij^ht  rovin<^s  in  a  row,  and  in  another  part  a 
ri)W  oi'  eii^ht  spindles.  The  rovin<rs.  when  extended  to  the 
s])iudles  passed  between  two  horizontal  bars  of  wood,  tbrmini^  a 
clasp  which  opened  and  shut  somewhat  like  a  ])arallel  ruler. 
When  pressed  together  this  clas])  held  the  threads  fast;  a  certain 
portion  of  rovir.ij;  beiui^  extendetl  tVoiii  the  spindles  to  the  wooden 
clas[),  the  clasp  was  closed,  and  was  then  drawn  alouiLj  the 
horizontal  fV.ime  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  spinilles, 
by  wiiich  the  threads  were  lenijthened  out  and  reduced  to  the 
proper  leiiuitv  ;  this  was  dour  w  ith  the  spinner's  lett  hand,  and 
his  ri^ht  hand  at  the  same  time  turned  a  wheel  which  caused  the 
spindles  to  revolve  rapidh',  and  thus  the  ro\in<^  was  spun  into 
yarn.  By  returnint^  the  clasp  to  its  first  situation  and  lettiii.<2[ 
ilown  a  pieicei wire,  the  yarn  was  wound  upon  the  spindle." 

1  lar<4rea\es  succeeded  in  keepiiij^  his  admiral)le  in\ention 
secret  t"i)r  a  time  :  but  the  powers  of  his  machine  soon  became 
known.    His  ignorant  nei;^libors  hastily  concluded  that  a  machine, 


III' 


r 


3S 


SF.I.rfTIOXS. 


wliicli  L'lKiblcd  one  spinster  to  do  tlu"  work  of"  ci^lit.  would  throw 
nudtitudcs  ot"  persons  out  of  emplovnient.  A  inol)  l)roU(.'  into  bis 
lioiisc  and  destrovcd  liis  niacliinc.  I  Inr'^rivnes  liinisell  liad  to 
retire  to  Xotlinj^hain,  wlune,  with  tlu'  tViendU'  assistance  i>f 
another  ))erson,  he  was  ahlc  to  take  ont  a  patent  for  the  spinnin<4- 
jerniv,  as  the  machine,  in  cf)niphnient  to  his  industrious  wife,  was 


caiU'ii 


Til 


e  invention  ol"  the  spinnin^-jennv  ^a\e  a  new  impulse  to  the 


cotton  manulactnre, 


[)Ut  the   in\ention  ot    the  snumniLi'-jemiv,  il 


It  hai 


een   acc(jmpanied    li\'  no  olliei'   nnpro\  emeiils.  wi>u 
d  an 


Id 


not 


ha\e  allowed  any    purelv   cotton    yoods    to    he   mainilactured   ni 
England.      The  yarn  spun   by  the  jenny,  like  that  which  had  pre- 
viouslv  been   spun   bv    hand,    was   neither  line  enot.'ti^h   nor   hard 
enouL^h  to  be  emplo\e(l  as  warp,  and  lini'U  or  woollen  thix-ads  hail 
conseiiuentK'  to  be  used  lor  this  purpose.      In  the  \erv  vear,  how- 
e\er,  in  which  IlarL^reaves  nio\'ed  lioin  Hlackburn  to  Xottinijham. 
J^ichard  Arkwrii^ht  took  out  a  patent  lor  his  still  more  celehrateil 
machine.      It  is  alleged  that   John  W'yatt.  of  Hiiinint^ham,  thirtv 
years  before  the  date  of  Arkwri^ht's  patent,  IkkI  elaborated  a  ma- 
chine for  spinning'  b\'  rollers.      l>nt  in   a  work  of  this  desci'iption 
it  is  imjjossdde  to  analyze  the  conllictinLJ  claims  of  ri\al  in\  entors 
to  the  credit  of  discoveriii;^  ])articular  machinerv  ;   and  the  histo- 
rian can   do   no  moie   than    recortl   the   struj^^les   of  those   whose 
names  are  associated  with  the  im]Mv>yements  which  he  is  noticintj^. 
Richard  Arkwris^ht,  like   lohn  1  lar'-reaves,  had  a  huml)le  oriirin. 
Ilan^reayes  beLfan  lite  as  a  poor  wea\er:  Arkwri'^ht.  as  a  barber's 
assistant.      IIarL;rea\cs   had    a    llttiu'^    jxutner    in   his   industrious 
wife   Jenny.      Mrs.    Arkwright    is    said    to     have    clcstro\ed    the 
models  which  her  husband   had  made.      ])Ut   Arkwri<;ht  was  not 
deterred  from   his  pursuit  by  the  po\ertv  of  his  circumstances  or 
the  conduct  of  his  wife.      "Alter  man\'  veai's'  intense  and  painful 
a[)plication,''  he  invented  his  memorable  machine  for  spinniuiij  by 
rollers  ;   and   laid  the   toundations  of  tlie  t^itj^antic   industry  w  hich 
has  done  more  than  an\  other  trade  to  concentrate  in  this  country 
the  wealth  of  the  woild.      The  principle  of  ^Vrkwri'.rht's  j^reat  in- 
\ention  is  very  simple,      lie   passed   tlie  thrcail  over  two  pairs  of 
rollers,  one  of  which  was    made  to  revolve  much    more  rapidly 
than  the  other.      The  thread,  after  passin-^  over  the  pair  revolvinu^ 
slovvK',  was  di-awii  into  the  refpilsite  tenuit\'  bv  the  rollei"s  re\'olv- 
in<4'  at  a   hij^her  rapidit\ .      IJv   this  sim|'jle  but   memorable  inven- 
tion Arkwiight  succeeded  in  producing  thread  capable  of  cmploy- 


rnti 


ni; 


in. 

fi.il 


we 


lr;i 


!):ii| 


1)11 


IIH;    CiKKAl     IWKNTIONS. 


.^9 


iild  throw 

;i'  into  Iiis 
If  i;;i(l  t(, 
.st;mcc  111" 
spimiin^- 
wifc,  was 

llsc  to  tlic 

;-jeiiiiy,  if 

A'oiild  iiol 

ctiirc'tl   in 

1  liad  pri'- 

iior   hard 

reads  had 

cai',  how- 

ttiiinham. 

:clehiati.(l 

ini,  tliirtv 

trd  a  nia- 

L'scriptioii 

iii\  cntors 

the  histo- 

c   whose 

loticinu;. 

L'  oriti^'m. 

barber's 

i:.strioiis 

L)\cd    the 

was  not 

tanccs  or 

1  painful 

iniiifj  l>v 

V  \shich 

country 

irrcat  in- 

pairs  of 

rapidly 

c\'(dvini^ 

rc\ol\  - 

c  invcn- 

emplov- 


nK'iit  as  \\ar|).  I'roni  the  circumstance  that  the  mill  at  which  his 
niachiner\'  was  lir^t  erected  was  dri\en  b\'  watei'  powi'r.  the 
machine  iecei\ed  the  somewhat  inapprv)priate  name  of  the  water- 
fianie;  the   thiead   spun  by  it  was   usually  called   the  water-twist. 

d'he  in\  eulion  of  the  lly-sliuttlc  by  John  Kav  had  eiiat)led  the 
wt'a\ers  to  consume  more  cotton  than  the  spinsters  had  been  able 
to  pio\  ide  ;  the  in\ention  ol'the  spinidni;- jenny  and  the  water- 
tVanic  would  ha\  e  been  useless  if  the  old  system  of  hand-cardiuLC 
h  id  not  been  superseded  1)V  :i  more  etlicient  and  more  rapid 
l)roc('ss.  just  as  ArUwri<;ht  applied  rotatory  motion  to  spinniiiij^, 
so  Lewis  I'aul  introducc-d  revcdviui^;  cylinders  for  cartlinijj  cotton. 
I'anl's  machine  consisted  of  "  a  horizontal  cylinder,  covered  in 
its  w  hole  ciicumfiM'ence  with  parallel  rows  of  cards  with  inter- 
\eninij;  spaces,  and  tuiiu'cl  bv  a  handle.  I'nder  the  c\  Under  was 
a  concave  frame,  lined  internallv  with  cards  exactlv  httiiiL;'  the 
lower  half  of  the  cylinder,  so  that  when  the  han  lie  was  turncvi, 
the  cards  of  the  cv  Under  and  of  the  concave  frame  worhed  against 
each,  other  and  carded  the  wool."  ••  The  cardin^'s  were  of  coiu'se 
onlv  ot'  the  K'li'^'-th  of  the  cylinder,  but  an  in^eidous  apparatus 
^va^  att:iched  for  makin.^  ihem  into  a  perj^ctual  cardini4\  IC.ich 
hnnth  was  ])laced  on  a  llat  bioad  riband  which  was  extended 
between  two  short  cv  linders  and  which  wound  upon  one  cv  Under 
as  it  unwound  from  the  other."' 

'l'hi>  extraordinarv  series  of  inventions  placed  an  iilmost  unlim- 
ited supplv  of  yarn  at  the  disposal  of  the  weaver.  Jiut  the 
niachinerv.  which  had  thus  been  introduced,  was  still  incapable 
of  providing  \arn  iit  for  the  liner  tpialities  of  cotton  cloth.  "  The 
water-frame  spun  twist  tor  warps,  but  it  could  not  be  advantai^e- 
ously  used  tor  the  finer  cjualities.  as  thread  of  oreat  tenuity  has 
not  strength  to  bear  the  pull  of  the  rollers  when  winding  itself 
on  the  bobbin."  This  delect,  however,  was  removed  by  the 
iuLjenuity  of  .Samuel  Crompton.  a  voung  weaver  residing  near 
Holloii.  Crompton  succeeded  in  combining  in  one  machine  the 
\ariou.s  excellences  of  "Arkwright's  water-frame  and  Ilar- 
gieaves'  jenny."  Like  the  former,  his  machine,  which  from  its 
nature  is  happily  calletl  the  mule,  '•  has  a  system  of  rollers  to 
reduce  tlie  roving;  antl.  like  the  latter,  it  has  spindles  without 
bobbins  to  give  the  twist,  and  the  thread  is  stretched  and  spim 
at  the  same  time  by  the  spindles  after  the   rollers  have  ceased   to 


1" 

t 


I 
I 


'.■  ■: 


i 


nii 


'  Hiiines'"  IFist.  oftlie  Cotton  Manufacture,"  p.  173,  from  wliicli  work  the  preceding  quo. 
t.itinns  are  alsn  taken. 


Ir.'.!- 


JE 


40 


SF.iF.fTinxs. 


I^ivc  out  till-  lovc.  TIu'  <listiiV4uisliiii;^  tcatinc  nt"  tin.'  inuU'  is  tli.it 
the  spiiidlc's,  insti'.id  of  l)c'inc;  si:itii)n:irv,  .'is  in  both  tlic  other 
niacliiiK's,  .III-  phicrd  oi\  ;t  mixnlilc  c-;itii;iLjc'.  whith  is  wh'.'i'Kil 
out  to  ihi'  (h-^l.mci-  ol"  lll"l\ -lo'.ii- or  lil"t\-si\  iiiclics  iVoni  thi-roIKi 
hiMiu,  ill  onlL'i'to  strrl;li  mikI  twi^t  thr  thrcaiK  and  \\  hi-rlcd  in 
aj^ain  to  wind  it  on  the  spindlfs.  In  thi'  jenny,  tiic  chisp.  whiili 
held  the  ro\  in^s.  was  drawn  iiack  hy  the  hand  from  tiie  spiiidliN; 
in  the  mule,  on  the  contrar\'.  the  spindles  recede  iVoni  the  clasp, 
or  iVoni  the  rolliT  beam,  w  hich  acts  as  a  clasp.  'I'he  rollers  ot" 
the  mule  draw  out  the  roviiiLj  much  less  than  those-of  tlie  wati'i- 
Irame,  and  thev  act  liki-  the  clasp  of  the  jennv  Iiy  stoppin*;  and 
holdiiii^  fast  the  rove,  alter  a  certain  cpiantifv  has  been  j^iven  out, 
whilst  the  spindles  continue  to  recede  for  a  short  distance  farther, 
so  that  the  (lran;j;ht  of  the  thread  is  in  part  made  liv  the  rccediii'^ 
of  tlie  spindles.  JU'  this  ananj^ement,  comprisinj;  the  advantajjes 
liolh  of  the  roller  and  the  spindles,  the  thread  is  stretched  more 
jHentlv  and  eipiahh  .  and  a  much  liner  cpialitv  (jf  yarn  can  there- 
tore  lie  produced."  ' 

The  etlects  of  Crompton's  threat  invention  may  he  stated  epi- 
j^ranmiaticallv.  lietore  Crompton's  time  it  was  tli()U<iht  impossi- 
ble to  s])in  eighty  hanks  to  the  pound.  The  mule  has  spun  three 
hundred  and  liftv  hanks  to  the  pound  I  The  nati\es  of  India  coiilil 
spin  a  pound  of  cotton  into  a  thread  iiy  miles  lon,;^.  'I'he  Eng- 
lish succeeded  in  spimiinjr  the  same  thread  to  a  length  of  ido 
miles.""'  Yarn  of  the  linest  cpialitv  was  ;it  once  at  the  disposal  nt' 
the  weaver,  and  an  o|)portnnitv  \vas  atlbrded  for  the  proiluction 
of  an  indelinite  quantity  of  cotton  yarn.  J-Jut  the  <^reat  inventions, 
which  lune  been  thus  enumeiated,  would  not  of  themselves  have 
been  siillicient  to  establish  the  cotton  manufacture  on  its  present 
basis.  The  in<^eniiily  of  Ilaryreaves.  .VrkwriiLjht,  and  Crompton 
had  been  exercised  to  proxidc  the  weaver  with  yarn.  Their  in- 
ventions had  provided  him  with  more  yarn  than  he  could  by  any 
possibility  use.  The  spinster  had  beaten  the  weaver,  just  as  the 
wea\er  had  previously  beaten  the  spinster,  and  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  seemed  likeK'  to  stand  still  because  the  \arn  could  not 
be  wo\eii  more  rapidlv  than  an  expert  workman  with  Ka\'s 
inipro\ed  llv-shnttle  could  weave  it. 

Such  a  result  was  actuallv  contemplated  bv  some  of  the  leatlin'4 
manufacturers,  aiul  such  a  result  mi<;ht  possibly  have  temporarily 


cle 
liaj 
l.e 


lu 


'  Raines'  "  Hist,  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture,"  pp.  197,  19S. 
•  Ihid.,  p.  200,  and  "  Colchester,"  vol.  ii.  p.  75. 


iilc  is  tli.it 
the  (itlur 

■^  wlicc'kil 
the  roUir 
lu-flcd   ill 

isp.  which 
s|)iiulU> : 

\\\v  chisp, 
roUcTS  nt' 

\\c  watfi- 
jpiii*;  and 
^MNL'ii  out, 
;c  tartlicr, 
J  recc'(Hii'4 

lied  nioiv 
:an   thurc- 

.tatcd  c])i- 
[  impoj^si- 
1)1111  thrcL' 
uha  coiilil 
'I'hc  I'^iil;- 

tll     of     1(10 

isposal  (if 

Dthictioii 

ventioiis. 

\e.s  have 

s  present 

romptoii 

Their  iii- 

d  l)v  aiiv 

1st  as  the 

luiiactiiiL' 

couhl  not 

th    Ka\'s 

e  leading' 
r.purarily 


niK  (.ki:.\r  i\\  i.MHt.\s. 


41 


(Planned  it' it  had  not  hi'eii  asi'ited  liy  the  ingenuity  of  a  Kiiitish 
elei'4\ man.  IMinimd  L*art\\riL;lit.  a  eieiL;\ man  lesidiii'^  in  Iseiit, 
happened  to  he  stayiii;^  at  Matlock  in  the  snniiner  ot'  ijNj.  and  to 
he  thrown  into  the  eonipany  of  soiiu-  Maiu!iest(.'r  m'litU'lnen. 
'I  he  eoiuei  sation  tnrned  011  Arkurii^ht's  inaehiiuTv .  and  "  one 
dl' the  eoinpanv  ohservi'd  tliat.  as  soon  as  Arkwri'^ht's  patent  ex- 
pired. si>  iiianv  iiiiUs  woidd  he  ereeted  and  so  iinuh  eottoii  spun 
th;it  hands  wouhl  never  lie  found  to  weave  it."  L'art wri'^ht  rej>lied 
'•tliat  Aikwri^;ht  must  then  set  his  wits  to  work  t<>  imeiit  a 
\vea\iiiL^  iniU."  Tin;  Manchester  'gentlemen,  iiowever,  nnani- 
inoush-  a,i,M'eed  that  the  thinij  was  impracticahle.  Cirtwri^ht 
'•  controverted  the  iin])racticahility  i)V  reinarkin<;  that  there  iiad 
hei'ii  exhii'ited  an  aiitoinatoii  ii'^iire  which  phised  at  chess  ;  "  it 
conhl  not  he  "^  more  (hlHcnU  to  construct  a  machine  that  shall 
\\ea\e  than  one  which  shall  make  all  the  variet\-  of  moves  which 
;ire  required  in  that  complicated  j^ame."  W'ithin  three  \ears  he 
had  himself  proved  that  the  invention  was  practicable  hv  produc- 
ing;" tlie  ])ower-lf)oni.  .Suhse(|uent  inventors  improved  tlie  idea 
which  CarlwriLjht  had  originated,  and  within  fiftv  \eais  tVom  the 
(late  of  his  memorahle  \isit  to  Matlock  there  were  not  less  than 
100.000  power-looms  at  work  in  (ireat  Uritaiii  alone.' 

The  iinentions,  wdiich  have  been  thus  enumerated,  are  the 
most  remar!;ahle  of  the  imijrovemeiits  which  stimulated  the  de- 
velopment of  the  cotton  industrv.  Hut  other  inventions,  less 
tceneralh-  rememhered,  were  hardlv  less  wondeifid  or  less  hene- 
ticial  than  these.  L'p  to  the  middle  of  last  century  cotton  could 
only  he  lileached  bv  the  cloth  beint;  steeped  in  alkaline  l\es  lor 
several  days,  washed  clean,  and  spread  on  the  j^rass  for  some 
weeks  to  drv.  The  process  had  to  be  repeated  several  times,  and 
many  months  were  consumed  before  the  tedious  operation  was 
conchided.  Scheele,  the  .Swedish  philosopher.  disco\ered  in 
177-1-  ^'"-'  bleacliiii'LJ  properties  of  chlorine,  or  o\\ muriatic  acid. 
Herthollet.  the  French  chemist,  conceived  in  1  7S^  the  idea  of  ap- 
plyin<^  the  acid  to  blcachin_i(  cloth.  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the 
steam-engine,  and  Ilenrv  of  Manchester,  respectively  introduced 
the  new  acid  into  the  bleach-fields  of  Mact^rcLi^or  of  (ilasirow  and 
Kiil.i,fway  of  liolton.  Tlie  process  of  bleaching  was  at  once  re- 
duced from  months  to  da\s.  or  e\en  hours. - 

In  the  same  vear  in  which   Watt  and   Ilenrv  were  introducing^ 


'  Baines'  "  Cotton,"  pp.  229,  335. 

Mliid.,  pp.  2(7-2.»9. 


ii 


PMi 


42 


SKIJ'.crioN'S. 


llii'  iK'w  acid  l(»  the  1>1(.';k1ut.  IU'II.  a  Scolclim.m,  was  layiiiL(  llir 
roiiiidalioDs  1)1"  a  tradi-  in  priiitid  falicfu's.  '•  TIr' old  iiu'liiod  nf 
)>ri  itiiiLj  was  Itv  MikUs  iA'  sNrainmi'.  aiiuiit  lo  imlu's  \n\]<^  \>\  ;; 
luDad,  oil  llir  sill  l;K'r  of  \\  lii(.li  tlu'  palti-'i  ii  was  i  iil  in  ii-lii't'  in  tin 
coninion  nii'lliod  ol"  wood  i^n'^iax  ini;.  "  As  tlic  Mock  had  to  lir 
a|)i)Ii(.'d  to  till'  cloth  lt\  hai'.il,  **  no  more  ol"  it  conhl  he  printed  ;it 
once  liian  the  IdocU  could  cover,  and  a  sin^^lc  piece  of  calico.  .>> 
yards  in  leiintli,  ie(pnre(l  the  application  ol"  tlie  hlocU  .|  }S 
timi's."  '  This  cliniisv  process  was  superseded  1)\-  cylindef  p 
in<4.  "A  polishe(|  Copper  c\linder.  several  feet  in  leni^th,  ai..,  .; 
or  4  inches  in  dianu'ter,  is  en:^ia\ed  with  a  pattern  round  it- 
whole  circunit'erence  and  from  cud  to  c\](\.  It  is  then  placed 
lioii/ontally  in  a  press,  and,  as  it  revolves,  the  lower  part  of  the 
circunii'erence  passes  tluouj^h  the  colorin;^  matter,  w  hich  is  as^aiii 
removed  from  the  whole  surface  of  the  c\linder,  except  the 
cMi<rraved  pattern.  In  an  elastic  steel  Made  placed  in  contact  with 
the  cylindi'r,  and  reduced  to  so  line  and  straight  an  ed<j[e  as  v> 
take  oil"  the  color  without  scratchiu^j  the  copper.  The  color 
l>ein<^  thus  left  only  in  the  en^ra\ed  pattern,  the  piece  of  calico  or 
uHislin  is  drawn  tii^htly  over  the  c\  linder,  which  revolves  in  ih^ 
same  direction,  and  prints  the  cloth."  The  sa\inLj  of  labor 
"  ell'ected  hv  the  machine", is  "innnense;  one  of  the  c\li' 
machines,  attended  by  a  man  and  a  bov,  is  actually  capab 
producing  as  much  work  as  could  be  turned  out  by  one  hundred 
block  printers,  and  as  many  tear  boys."  " 

Such  are  the  leadiufj^  inventions,  which  made  Great  IJritain  in  less 
than  a  centurv  the  wealthiest  country  in  the  world.  '*  When  we 
undertook  the  cotton  manut'acture  we  had  comparatively  few 
facilities  for  its  jirosecution,  and  IkuI  to  stru'ii'i^le  with  the  "greatest 
diilicidties.  The  raw  material  was  produced  at  an  immense  ilis- 
tance  from  our  shores,  and  in  Mindustanand  in  China  the  inhabi- 
tants had  arrived  at  such  perfection  in  the  arts  of  spininng  and 
weaving,  that  the  lightness  and  delicacy  of  their  linest  cloths 
emulated  the  web  of  the  jjossamer,  and  seemed  to  set  competition 
at  defiance.  Such,  however,  lias  been  the  intluence  of  the  stu- 
pendous discoveries  and  inventions  of  Harjj^reavcs,  Arkwrii^ht. 
Crompton,  Cartwriy^ht,  and  others,  that  we  have  overcome  all 
these  dilliculties,  — that  neither  the  extreme  cheapness  of  labor  in 
Hindustan,  nor  the  excellence  to  which  the  natives  had  attained. 


i 


I    iSOK 


,ii  Si  line 
■H  linen  ti 
^M:iuch 


'  naines'  "CnttDn,"  pp.  264,  265. 
2  Ibid.,  pp.  265,  266. 


3 


ni:)ctilioii 


I  I  IK    (ikliAl     I.W  K.MIHNS. 


4,^ 


Ikis  rli;il>lc'<l  tlifiii  to  \\  itlist;iii(l  tlir  (.•oinpi'titioii  lit  tliosf.  wild  \)\\y 
tlu'ir  idttiiii.  :in(l  who.  jiltci  (.•;iri\  in^'  it  ^.ooo  inilrs  to  lie  in;mu- 
l';uturt'(l.  cany  li;uk  the  jfo'xU  to  tluiii."' 

It'Orcat  IWitaiii  I'litiivly  inoiiopoli/rd  tlu-  woollen  and  tlu'  cotton 
tiadc-i.  slu'  had  done   her  lust,    in    hi'i'  own   wav,  to  pfoinotc   the 


inaiuit'.icturc    o|    liiu'n    in    Ireland 


In    iTxiS    I'aiiiainent.    while 


ii'^ri,ii,iivl\  piolnliitinLC    the    I'xporiation    ot'    Iii 


sll     woollen     ''(lods, 


|iil(iii>l\    atleninted   to  laieonra'ji'   the   linen  niannlaetnri'  in  Ire 


mnt  I 


I's   wi'ii'  i)ai(l  on  al 


hnen  '•(>ods    nnixnted  nito  this 


set 
1,11)1 

ciiiiiitr\'  iVoin  the  sister  island  ;  and  the  ^ii'at  linen  trade  acciniri'd, 
c'sp'oiallv  in  I'lster,  the  iinportanee  which  it  ^till  ri'tains.  In 
iSo ).  31  .(;7'^«^,'^y  \ardNol'  linen  wiae  e\porte(l  I'lom  Ireland  to 
(ireat  liritain,  and  J.  vS5,.S2r)  \  ;irds  to  other  conntries.  In  iSi:;, 
the  export  trade  lia<l  1  iseii  to  .'^y.ySr).-^^!)  ;ind  ^..\()C).Z()('>  yards 
re^peetivelv.  A  I'onnidalile  ri\al  to  I  l>tei'  was.  liowi'\er.  slow  Iv 
ri^ill,t,^  in  anotlua"  part  of  the  kin-^doin.  A\  tlie  close  of  the  <4ieat 
rreiu'h  war  Dundee  was  still  an  insiMiiitlcant  nianntactiirini^ 
town,  lull  tlie  ionndations  weic  already  laid  of"  tlu-  sniprisin'^ 
|siipreinac\'  which  she  has  since  actpiired  in  the  linen  tradi'. 
Sonic  ^.(joo  tons  ol"ll;i\  weii-  iinporti-d  into  tin*  Scotch  poit  in 
iSi  |.  liiit  the  time  was  ra|)idl\-  coming-  when  the  shipments  of 
linen  tVoin  this  single  place  weie  to  exceed  those  from  all  Ireland, 
atul  Dnndee  was  to  he  spoken  of  1)\'  prote  ed  economists  as  the 
iMancliester  of  the  linen  trade.' 

The  silk  maiuitactnrers  of  Ilritain  ha\e  ne\.'r  yet  sncceeded  in 

[ac([iiirin'^-  the  predominance  which  t!ie  wo  lUen,  cotton,  and  linen 

Ifacldis  have  \iitiially  obtained.      The   worm,  1)\-   which   the   raw 

jfnatcrial    is    produced,    has    never  lieen   acclimatized  oi\   a   larLi;e 

scale  in  Eii'j^hmd  ;  and  the  trade  has  natnrallv  tlonrishcd  chiellv 

in  those  conntries  where  the  worm  could  li\'e  and  spin,  or  wdiere 

[the  raw  material  coidd  he  the  most  easily  procinx'd.    Insular  prei'u- 

idicc,  moreo\er,  should  not  induce  the  historian  to   foi'^et  anotlu'i' 

jreason    which    has    materiallv   intertered    with    the    de\elopment 

jof  this  particular  trade.      The   in;^eiuiit\-  oftlie  British  was  snpe- 

irior   to  that  of  every   other   nation  ;  hut    the   taste  of  the  Ihitish 

was  inferior  to  that  of  most  ])eo])le.     An  article  which  was  onl\' 

uorn  hy  the  rich,  and  which    was  only   used    for   its   heautv  and 

delicacy,  was  natnrallv    produced   mf),st  successt'ulK-  1)\-  the   most 

artistic  people.      En;j;lish  woollen  goods  tound  their  way  tcj  every 


1 

1' 

' 

1 !           • 

it 
i » 1 

m 


'  McCullocli's  "  Commercial  Diet.,"  ad  verb.  Cotton. 

2  McCuUoch,  ad  verb.  I.inen  ;  Porter's  "  IVogress  of  the  Xatii 


HI,     p.  230. 


I  ; 


44 


si:i,i:(  i"i(  INS. 


(.•ontiiuMital  nation:   Inil  IIr-   wcallln    I'^ij^lislr  imported  llicii'  li 


m-i 


:f;.rf 


Insti  inL;s  am 


i  ,>  /, 


I'S  n/(H 


/,s  I 


roil)   llal\   am 


I  !■ 


rami" 


lie  s 


ills   I'a. 


woiilil.  in  lait.  Iia\c  har«ll\  toinid  a  lionic  in  ICir^land  at  all  h.iil 
il  not  lii-iMi  lor  tlu'  tojlv  ol  a  nri^lilun  in;^  potentate.  J.onis  XIW, 
in  a  disaslrons  lioni'  tor  I'lanee,  rexokt'd  tlu'  IMiet  ol'  Nanlt^; 
and  till'  l'"reni'li  Ihp^nenols.  to  their  I'ternai  honor,  preleriiii:; 
iheii  eonseienet'^  to  tlu-ir  conntis  ,  son^ht  a  home  amongst  a  moi\ 
liheral  people.  'Idle  silk  \\ea\iis  of  I'ranei'  settled  in  S|)il,il- 
Melds,  and  the  IJrilish  silk  tradi-  gained  rapidh  on  its  toi\i-!i 
rivals.  Parliament  .'doptt'd  tlu'  n^nal  elnms\  eonlii\  anei-^  tw 
])romot(.'  an  indnslr\  \\  hose  impoitaiut."  it  was  no  lonm'i'  ]5ossilik 
to  ii^noie.  l'rohiliitor\-  dnties,  desi^ni'd  to  disv-onraL;e  the  ini- 
portatioii  ol  toieiL;n  silk,  wei",  imposei!  1>\  the  li'^islatnn' : 
nionopc)li(,'s  we're  ;4ranti'd  to  sneeesstnl  thro,\  steis,  and  i'\ei\ 
precantion  was  taken  whieh  the  lollies  of  protection  conM 
sny^est.  to  per])i'tnatt.'  the  sn))remae\'  wl'.ieh  (ireat  IJritain  w.i- 
>4iadnall\  aecpiirinj^  in  the  sdk  trade.  Thi-  nsnal  resnits  tnl- 
iowed  this  shoit-sit;hted  poliev.  rrohihitorv  dnties  eneonram'ij 
snuij4>4linL;'.  I'cMi'i'^n  ^i!k  lonml  its  wa\  into  I'!!ii!^land,  and  tiu 
rc\onne  was  lUtVanded  aeeordiiiL^lv.  The  EnL,^lisli  trade  li(.';4.iii 
to  deelini".  and  l*arli:nnent  a^ain  inteileried  to  promote  its  pros. 
peritN'.  In  that  nnhapps'  period  of  ICni^lish  histor\-  wliii.: 
sneei'eds  tlie  fall  ol"  Chatham  and  tlu-  rise  ol"  Pitt,  Parlianuni 
adopted  t'li'sli  I'xpedients  to  promote  tin-  pro-.peiitv  ol  the  ^ilk 
trade.  Prohihitorv  duties  were  leplaced  with  actual  prohihit io;i, 
and  elaliorate  attempts  were  made  to  rcunlale  the  wa|Ljes  ot"  tin' 
SpitallicKls  wea\i.rs.  The  natural  conseipiences  ensued.  .Smnu- 
>:;lintj,  w  Inch  had  been  created  Iw  ])rohil>itive  dnties,  llonrislnil 
with  Ire^h  \  italit\  under  llu"  intluenci'  olactual  prohibition,  '['..c 
capitalists  transteneil  their  mills  t'rom  Spit:Jtiehls.  wliL'rc  tli'.' 
labors  ot' their  workmen  were  tl\(.'d  Iw  law.  to  Maccleslleld  aiiil 
other  places,  where  master  and  workmen  were  Tree  to  make  tluir 
own  terms 

The  silk  trade  was  haidh'  beint:^  developed  wit'.i  the  saiii.' 
rapiditv  as  the  three  other  textile  industries.  Hut  silk,  Uk 
wool.  Cotton,  and  linen,  was  atlordiiii.;  a  considerable  amount  m 
emploN  ment  to  a  constantlv  L,MowinL;-  population.  The  tevtiii. 
industries  of  this  couiitr\'  could  not  indeed  ha\e  ac(piired  the  im- 
portance which  thev  have  since  obtained,  if  the  inventions  ^>\ 
ll:ir<;rea\cs,  .Vrkw  ri^ht.  Cvompton,  and  Cartwrii^ht  had  not  \k\:. 
supplenifntcil  by  the  labors  of  explorers  in  another  tield.      Mi- 


chnie 
■^'.    liiiil  i 
K-ss 
]ii  iW  e 
iiicnl 
wliic 
IH'ipe 
U>  \r.v 
ol    the 


tlu'il'    line  ! 
'   silk    I'.il 

I  at  all  h.i.l 

(luis  X  I  \'., 

)l'  Naiilis; 

pii'll'rrin.; 

l;sI  a  111' 111 

ill    S  ] )  i  1 ,  1 1  - 

its   lorri'j; 

ivaiicc's    ti) 

(.■r  ])<)ssililr 

;x'    tiu'  ini- 

c^islaliiif ; 

and    cviiA 

ion     cmilil 

Iritaiii   w.i- 

vsnlls    |ul- 

no)ura;^^il 

il,  and   ilk- 

■adi-   lu"4,iii 

ti'  its  ])iii-.   -^ 

)VV     wliiil 

iilianu'iit  ^i 

f  the   silk 

>lnl)ilinn.    ;1 

•^L'S  ot'  llio 

Sr.inu- 

louiislnd 

ion.     Tiic 

where  the  J 

lleld    and  '^ 

akc  tliL'ir 

he    sain.' 

si!k,    like 

mount  ut 

u-   textile  I 

d  the  im- 

■iitions  ut 

not  I  > Jell 

Hd.     M.i- 


'iiii',  (iki:\r  iwiAiiiiNs. 


4=; 


rhimi 


\  makes  ]iossilile  what  man  1>\  manual  lalior  alone  would 
lind  it  impossiMe  to  jxtIoiid.  I'mt  maehincrv  would  he  a  iisi-- 
K  ss  iiu'iinihraiue  were  it  not  lor  the  priseiiee  o|  some  motive 
iM.wiT.  I'lom  the  earliest  a'_;es  men  have  eiidea\ored  to  supple- 
iiunt  the  hiiite  joree  ot  animals  with  the  moir  powerliil  loixcs 
wliirh  iialiire  has  |)laeeil  at  their  disposal.  'I'lu-  o\  was  not  to  he 
MCI  pelnalh'  Used  to  tread  out  the  eoi  n  ;  women  were  not  alwass 
III  piss  their  da\s  lahoiious|\  ^rindin'4  at  a  mill.  The  mo\i'meiif 
III  the  atmospheie.  llie  llow  o|'  niiiuiu'^  water,  were  to  In-  taken 
Into  allianee  with  man;  and  the  iuvcntion  of  wind-mills  an<l 
wali'i -mills  was  to  mark  an  advaiui'  in  the  onward  maieh  ot 
(  ivili/atioii.  Htit  air  and  wati'i,  minhtx  toiets  as  tlie\' ai'e.  proved 
luit  liekle  and  iineertaiu  auxiliaries.  Wlii'ii  the  wind  was  t<)o 
liiw  its  stieii'jth  was  iusiitlleient  to  turn  the  eumhrous  sails  ol"  the 
mill;  when  it  was  too  hi;4h  it  (l(.-rair_;ed  tin-  eoniplieatt'd  ma- 
rhiiierv  ot'  the  miller.  'I'he  milK-r  who  trusted  to  water  was 
h.iidlv  more  t'ortniiate  than  the  man  who  relied  upon  air.  .\ 
siiinmer  droiii^hl  fedneed  the  jxiwer  ot' his  wheel  ;it  the  vei  \-  time 
when  loiiL^  (lavs  and  liiu' weatluT  made  him  anxious  to  aceom|)lish 
t!u'  utmost  possihle  amount  of  work.  A  flood  swi'|)t  awav  the 
(I. (Ill  on  which  his  mill  depended  lor  its  su])plv  ot"  watt-r.  ;\m 
admiiahle  auxiliary  diiiin;^  iH-rtain  ))oitions  of  i-aeh  \i'ar.  watt.'r 
was  oceasionalU  too  stroni,^.  oeeasionallv  too  weak,  tor  the  ])Ui- 
poses  of  the  miller. 

The  mamifaeturiiv^  industrv  of  the  eountrv  stood,  therefore,  in 
need  of  a  new  motive  |)o\ver  ;  and  iiuentioii,  which  is  sup|)osed 
l)v  soini'  thinkers  to  depend  like  other  eo:umodities  on  the  laws 
of  (lein;!i'd  and  sup|)l\  .  was  hiisilv  elahoi  atin:^  a  new  j)i"ohlem.  — 
the  use  ol' a  novel  powfr,  which  was  to  revohitioni/e  the  w  oild. 
The  elasticitv  of  hot  water  had  loti<;  been  noticed,  and.  tor  a 
century  and  a  half  hetore  the  period  of  this  historv.  a  few 
advanced  thiid<ers  had  been  speculatiu;^  on  the  possihilitv  of 
iitili/,iiiv(  the  expansive  powers  of  steam.  The  Maiipiis  of 
W  nieester  ha<I  descrihed.  in  his  "  Centmv  of  Inventions,"  "an 
admiiahle  and  most  forcihle  w;i\'  to  dri\e  up  water  hv  means  of 
fire."  .Steam  was  actuallv  used  early  in  the  eighteenth  century 
as  a  motive  jiower  for  pumpiiv.^'  watcf  from  mines  ;  and  Xew- 
Cdiiien.  a  blacksmith  in  Dartmouth,  invented  a  tolerablv  etVicient 
steani-eiiLjine.  It  was  pot,  however,  till  i  J'x).  that  James  W'.itt. 
a  native  of  (ireenock,  and  a  mathematical  instrument-maker  in 
Glasfjow,  o'utaiiicil  his  tirst  patent  for   ••  methods  of  lessening;  the 


1  .    . 

i 

!!l 


'H 


Iv. 


if" 


'f' 


il:l 


46 


SF.i,ErTin\s. 


Consumption  of  steam,  and  C(  nsequcnlh  ol"  tucl.  in  tirc-cn^incs. 


J 


imcs 


Watt 


was    l)oi'n    m 


.;;/).     11 


IS   tatlirf  was  a   mau'-'^t.i'iU 


and  Dad 


IK' 


ood  st'iisf  to  iMKoiira-'c  till'  '•■<>o(i  turn  tor  mccliaiii 


\\  hu- 


ll   Ins    so 


11   (lispla\c'(l   at    a    vcrx 


IMIIV 


aLic. 


At    tl 


U" 


a-v 


nineteen  W  att  was  placi'd  with  a  niatlieinatical  insti mneiit-maker 
in  London.  Hut  leei)le  health,  whirh  iiad  inteil'ered  with  hi> 
studies  as  a  hov.  prevented  him  tVoin  pursuing  his  avocations  in 
lOn^land.      Watt  retunieil   to   his   nati\e  eonntrv.      Tlie  (jhis^-,,\v 


l)o(lv  of  Arts    and     Tradi 


howexer,    relnsed    to   allow    linn    t' 


exercise    his   callinLj   within    the   limits  of  their  jurisdiction  ;   ami 
had  it  not  been  tor  the   L'niveisit\  ol'  (ilas<^fow.  which  hetVieiKK! 


liim    in    his    ditricullv 


ainl 


aijooin 


ted 


nil 


n     their   matheiiiatical 


instrument-maker,  tlie  career  ot"  one  ol"  tlie  L;"reatest  <^enin^i> 
whom  (ireat  IJritain  has  produced  would  have  been  stinted  at 
its  outset. 

'I'here  happened  to  be  in  the  I'niversity  a  model  of'  Xiw- 
couien's  engine.  It  liap])eiied.  too.  that  the  model  was  det'ec- 
ti\elv  constiiicti'd.  \\  att.  in  the  ordinai\  course  of  his  bus'  l-s. 
was  asked  to  i'emed\  its  defects,  and  he  soon  succeeded  in  doiii'j; 
so.  ]Int  his  examination  of  the  mod.el  convinced  liiiri  of  serioih 
faults  in  the  ori;_;inal.  Newcoinen  had  injected  cold  water  intu 
the  c\linder  in  oiiler  to  condense  tin.-  steam  and  thus  obtain  a 
necessaiv  vacuum  for  tlu'  piston  to  work  in.  Watt  discovered 
that    threi'-foui  ths  ol     the   luel    which     the   enj^ine   coiiMimed    wa> 


recjuireii  to  reliea 


t  tl 
d   1 


le  CNlmder, 


It  occurred  to  him  that,  if  t 


ic 


condensation  could  be  perlonned  in  a  separate  vessel,  commuiii- 
catiiiLj  witli  the  c\liiider.  the  latter  could  be  kept  hot,  \vhile  the 
tormer  was  cooled,  and  the  vapor  aiisi.i'^  fi-om   the  injected  watiT 


coi 


lid  also  be 


prevented   Iroai    inipairiii;^  the   vacuum. 


T 


le  com- 


miinication  could  ea^ilv  be  ell'ected  l>v  a  tube,  and  the  water  couhl 
be  pumped  out.  This  is  the  tiistan<l  the  j^rand  invention  bv  whicli 
he  at  once  saveil  three-loinths  of  the  fuel,  and  increased  the 
j)ower  one-fourth,  thus  makin;^  everv   pound  of  C(^al  produce  tivc 


times   the  lorce  tormerlv  obtained   trom  it, 


•'  I 


satisfied   with    this    siii'^le    improvement 


ah  )ve  as  we 


1' 
as   below  the  piston. 


II 


Hut  Watt  was  n<.t 
e   introduced    steam 


ant 


I    tl 


Ills  a'-am   increased  tlu 


ower  of    the  ma 


jhiiu 


11* 


th 


e  discovered   the   princi|)le  ol  paralU' 


motion,  and   thus  niaile  the   piston   move  in   a  true   straight  line 
lie  rei;ulated  the  sujjply  uf  water  tu  the  boiler  by  the  means  u! 


iiu'ai 
vahul 
iiitml 
Watt 
(da- 
Mr. 
vv  Im^l 

supi 
Otlu 


IJ. 


iti^hain's 


Mil.  (if  I.iltfis  :iiiil  Sc 


I'lUT,       |>.    Jli 


L'n«jmc,s. 

aii^istraU', 

iic'cl);ini>  > 

le   n'j;c   III 

iit-makcr 

with    hi- 

:at'n)iis  ill 

Glas;^i)\v 

V    him    1'. 

ion  ;   aiii! 

icfri(.Mi(K'.! 

hcmalical 


geniuses       ^ 
.stinted  at        I 


of   Xew- 

•as  (IfUc- 

bus'    f--, 

1  ill  doiii',' 

if  scrinii- 

,atL"i"   intu 

()I)taiii  a 

isCoNL'lctl 

iiK'cl    \\  i^ 

It.  if  t!i..' 

oiuiniiiii- 

k\iiilc  the 

i.'(l  watti 

ic  fom- 

lt  coiilil 

V  wliith 

scd    tlir 

lice  ti\L' 

was   11"' 

1    steam 

ised   tlio 

parallel 

lit   line. 

iiean^  '>' 


THE    flRF.AT    [NVKMIONS. 


47 


"  lloats."  the  supply  cA'  steam  to  tlu'  e.\  linder  1)\   the  application 
of"  the  ;jjovernor."   and.  hv  the  addition  of  all  these  discoveri'.'s, 
••  satistied   himself  that   he   hail  almost  created  a   new   eiiL^ine.  of 
incalculahle     power,      nniversal      application,      and     inestimable 
\aliie."  '      It  is  unnecessary  to   relate   in   these  paL^es  the   i;radual 
introduction    of   the   new   machine   to  the   manufactm'in!^  public. 
Watt    was  first  connected  with    Dr.    Roebuck,   an    iron-master  of 
(ila>LJow.      l>nt  his   name   is  pcrmaiU'iitlv  associatt'd   with   that  of 
Ml'.  IJunlton.  the  proprietor  oi  the  .'^oho  Works  near  Hirniin_<fhain, 
w  ho^e  partner  he   became   in    1774.      Watt  and    IJonlton    rapidlv 
■..upplemented   the  orii^inal   invention  with   further  impioxements. 
Utlier  inventors  succeeded    in  the  same   Held.  and.  b\  the  l)e;^in- 
iiiii'j;  of  the  present  centnrv,  steam  was  established  as  a  new  tbrce  ; 
advanced   thinkers  were  considcrin;^  the  possibilit\'  of  appl\  in;^  it 
to  purposes  ot  locomotion. 

I'lie  steam-engine  indeed  would  not  ha\e  been  inxented  in  the 
cii,diteenth  centnrv,  or  would  not  at  anv  rate  have  been  discovered 
ill  this  countrv,  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  \ast  mineral  wealth 
with  which  ( ireat  liritain  has  lortunateK'  been  pro\  ided.  Iron, 
tlie  most  useinl  of  all  metals,  presents  greater  dilKiculties  than 
aiiv  other  of  them  to  the  niannfactuii'r,  and  iron  was  probablv 
line  of  the  \  erv  last  minerals  which  was  ap])lied  to  the  si'iN  ice  ot' 
man.  Centuries  elapsed  betbie  the  lich  mines  ot  Our  own  coun- 
try were  even  sli^iitK'  worked.  The  Romans  indeed  established 
iron  works  in  ( iloucestershire.  ju'^t  as  ihev  obtained  tin  iVoni 
COrnuall  or  lead  from  \\  ales.  Hut  the  I'uitish  thd  not  imitate 
the  e\ain))U?  of  their  earliest  coiu|ueror>,  and  the  little  iron  which 
was  used  in  this  eountiv  was  imported  from  abroad.  .Some 
pro^iess  was,  no  doubt,  made  in  the  southern  counties;  the 
'■nielters  naturallv  seekiuLf  their  ores  in  those  places  where  wood, 
then  the  onlv  available  tuel,  was  to  be  t'ound  in  abun<lance.  The 
railiiijrs  which  but  latelv  encircled  our  metropolitan  cathedral 
were  cast  in  Sussex.  But  the  prosperlt\  of  the  tradi-  iiisoKi-d  its 
fUMiiiiin.  Iron  could  not  be  made  without  lai^e  (piantities  of 
tuel.  The  wood  ijraduallv  disiappeari'd  befon-  the  operations  of 
the  smelter,  and  the  country  }j;entlemen  hesitated  to  "^ell  their 
trees  tor  tiud  when  the  increase  of  shipping;  w-;s  creating-  a  l,m"ow - 
iii'^r  demand  for  timber.  Nor  were  the  countiA  i^entlemen  ani- 
mated   in    this    respect    by    purelv   selfish    motives.      Parliament 


'  l.oTcl  MiDiiyh.iiii'-.  "  Men  lA'  l.cttirs  ami  Siiciui',"  p.  (-|. 


ii^ 


48 


sF.i.r.crioNs. 


itself  sliarcd  llicir  njiprchcnsioiis  and  endorsed  their  views.  It 
re;j;arded  tlic  eonstant  de'^truction  ot'  timlier  with  sneh  distaxoi- 
that  it  serii)nsl\  eonleniphited  the  sn])press!nn  ol"  the  iron  tralr 
as  tile  ()nl\'  practical  reniedv.  ••  Man\  think."  said  a  conteinpo- 
rarv  writer,  "  that  there  shonld  be  no  works  an\  where,  thev  si 
devour  the  woods."  '  Fortnnalelv,  so  crucial  a  reniedv  was  n<ii 
necessarv.  At  the  conmiencenient  ol"  the  seventeenth  centnrx. 
Dud  Dndlev,  a  natural  son  of  Lord  iJudlex .  had  proved  the 
fcasihililv  of  snieltiiiii;  iron  with  coal  ;  Imt  (he  pri-jndice  ami 
iiLjnorance  of  the  work-people  had  preventi-d  the  adoption  of  lii'- 
invention.  In  the  middle  of  the  eij^hteenth  centurv,  attention 
was  a<^ain  drawn  to  his  process,  and  the  possihilitv  of  snhstitiit- 
in<^  coal  for  wood  was  conclnsivelv  estaldished  at  the  l)arl)\\ 
works  at  Coalhrook  Dale.  I'he  impetus  w  hich  was  thus  <fiven 
to  the  iron  trade  was  extraordinars .  The  total  produce  of  tho 
countr\'  amounted  at  the  time  to  onlv  18,000  tons  of  iron  a  veai. 
four-lil'ths  of  the  iron  used  heinj^j  imported  from  Sweden.  In 
1S02  (ireat  Britain  possessed  16S  hlast-hirnaces.  and  ])roilnceii 
I'jo.ooi)  tons  of  iron  amuiallv.  In  iSof)  the  produce  had  risen  to 
2^0,000  tons  :  it  had  increased  in  1S20  to  .}oo. 000  tons.  I'^iftv 
vears  afterwards,  or  in  1S70,  6,ooo.O'jo  tons  of  iron  were  i)rii- 
dnced  fiom  British  ores.'- 

The  pro^^rcss  of  the  iron  tiade  iiulicated,  of  course,  a  corre- 
spondin<j^  development  of  the  supplv  of  coal.  Coal  had  been  usid 
in  ICuLjIand  for  domestic  purposes  from  \ervearlv  periods.  Sea  coal 
had  been  biouij^ht  to  London  :  but  the  cili/ens  had  complaincil 
that  the  smoke  was  injurious  to  theii'  health,  and  had  persuadnl 
the  leji'islatuie  to  lorbid  the  u^eotcoal  on  sanitar\  j^iounds.  TIil'  || 
con\enience  of  the  new  fuel  ti  iun'ij)lied,  however,  over  the  armi- 
ments  of  the  sanitarians  and  the  prohibitions  of  the  letjislatuvc. 
and  coal  continued  to  be  brou<;ht  in  constantlv  thoni;h  slowh  iii- 
creasino;  quantities  to   London.      It,>   use  for  smeltintij  iron  led  to 


new  contrivances  tor  ensurin<^  its  economical  production 


Bef 


ore 


tl 


le  commence 


ment  of  the  iiiesent  centuiv  there    were  two  sircat 


dilViculties  wliich    interfered   with    the  operations  of   the  miner, 
The  roof  of  the  n^.ine  had   necessarilv   to  be  jiropped,  and,  as  m 


one  had  thouji 


ht  of 


usiuif  wood,  ami  coal  itself  was  empIove( 
the  purpose,  oidy  (>o  per  cent,  ul'  the   produce  of  each  mine  w 


inr 


,ls 


SiniU's'  "  Iinlustiiiil  IUii;rr:ipliy,"  p.  ) ; 


«  •'  Diet.  Hist. 


vol.  IV. 


.'iSo;  McCullDi-h,  "  Diet,  iifl'mni 


;iil  virli.    Irnn  ;  I'o'-tii's 


I'n. 


it"  till 


N'ali'in,"'    p.  ^jo;  statisticnl  ab.'str.irt  iil"  tlic  I   iiiti'd  KiiiK^iln 


vs.        It 
lisfavor 
11    ti;i'K' 
'tcin|)<i- 
tlicy  v'l 
vas   not 
XMitury, 
vi'd   the 
ice    ami 
n  of  liis 
ttcntion 
ihstitnt- 
Darhv's 
IS   ifivcMi 
c    of   tlk' 

I  a  \ci\\\ 
Icn.  Ill 
iri)(liHc'tl 
risen  to 
.       Fiftv 

\     CDl'lC- 

L'cu  iisrd 
Sea  coal 
ijilaiiuvl 
•rsiiaiK'd 
s.       Tlir 
lu'  ar.mi- 
islaliivi'. 
)\vlv  iii- 
)n  led  t'l 
Before 
vo  ureal 
miner. 
Ill,  as  nil 
ived  tiiv 
ine   \v,i^ 


'Hil:  (iRi;.\r  invkmions. 


49 


raised  above  <i^round.  About  the  l)e<^innin<^  of  the  nineteenth 
ciiilinv,  timber  struts  were  i^radually  substituted  for  the  pillars  of 
coal,  and  it  became  consecjuentlv  possiI)le  to  raise  .from  tlie  mine 
all  the  coal  won  by  the  nuner.  A  still  more  im|)ortant  discovery 
was  made  at  the  exact  period  at  which  this  history  commences. 
The  coal-miner  in  his  underground  callin<^  was  constantly  ex- 
posed to  the  (landers  of  tire-damp,  and  was  liable  to  be  destroyed 
without  a  moment's  notice  by  the  most  fearful  catastrophe.  In 
the  vear  in  which  the  <^reat  French  war  was  concluded,  .Sir 
lliim|)hrey  Davy  succeedeil  in  perfectinj^  his  sat'ety-lamp,  an  in- 
vention which  enal)le(l  the  most  dani^erous  mines  to  be  worl<e<i 
with  comparative  safet}  ,  and  thus  auj^mented  to  an  extraordinary 
extent  the  available  supplies  of  coal.' 

lluinphrey  Davy  was  the  son  of  a  wood-carver  of  Penzance, 
and  early  in  life  was  apprenticed  to  a  local  apothecary.  Chance  — 
of  which  other  men  would  perhaps  have  tailed  to  avail  them- 
selves—  <j^ave  the  lad  an  opportunity  of  cidtivatin!:^  his  taste  for 
chemistry.  A  French  surj^jeon,  wrecked  on  the  coast,  to  whom 
Daw  had  shown  some  kindness,  fjave  him  a  case  of  sur;.fical  i?i- 
stiuineiits,  and  "  the  means  of  makinj^  some  approximation  to  ai\ 
i\lKiustin<;  euLjine."  Watt's  son.  Gregory  Watt,  was  ordered  to 
wliiti'r  in  Cornwall  for  his  health,  and  happened  to  take  apart- 
ments in  the  house  of  Davy's  mother.  '*  Another  accident  threw 
liim  in  the  way  of  Mr.  Davies  Giddy,  a  cultivator  of  natural  as 
well  as  mathematical  science."  (Jiddy  '•  j^ave  to  Davy  the  use  of 
ail  excellent  library  ;"  he  '"  introduced  him  to  Dr.  IJeddoes,"  who 
made  his  youi;;^  tViend  the  head  of  "  a  pneumatic  institution  for 
the  metlical  use  of  j^ases,"  whicli  he  was  then  formin<^.  The 
piililication,  soon  afterwards,  of  a  fanciful  paper  on  li.L^ht  and  heat 
'^:\\c  Davy  a  considerable  reputation,  lie  was  successively 
chosen  assi^t;|nt  lectmer  in  chemistry,  and  sole  chemical  pnjfessor 
(if  the  Ro\al  Institution.  While  he  held  tliis  ollice  his  iiKjuiries 
iiiiluced  him  to  investii^ate  the  causes  of  the  fearl'ul  explosions 
whlcli  continually  took  place  in  coal  mini's.  lie  soon  satisfied 
liin:self  that  carburetted  hvdroL^e.i  is  the  cause  of  lire-damp;  and 
that  it  will  not  explode  unless  mixed  with  atmospdieric  air  "  in 
projjortions  between  six  and  fourteen  times  its  bulk  ;  "  and  "  he 
was  surjnised  to  oiiserve  in  the  course  of  his  experiments,  made 
tor  ascertaining  how  the  inflammation  takes  place,  that  the  flames 


'  I'urU-r's  "  l'r<>grfs>  1)1' tin-  Niitimi,"  p.  !-- ;   MiC'iiJIorli,  ail  •.  til),  (.'n.il. 


m 


N 


50 


SEI.ECTIDNS. 


will  not  pass  lhr<»ii<rh  tiibi's  of  a  certain  lcMi;j;th  and  sinallnis^ 
of  l)orc.  He  tlien  found  that,  if  the  leiiLjth  he  tUniinished  and  tlu 
bore  also  reduced,  the  llanies  will  not  [)ass  ;  and  he  further  found 
that,  l>v  inultiplvinjf  the  lunnher  of  the  tubes,  this  lenj^tli  niav  br 
safely  diminished  provided  tlie  bore  be  [jroporlionally  lessened. 
Hence  it  appeared  that  gau/e  of  wire,  whose  meshes  were  oid\ 
one  twenty-second  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  stopped  the  llame  and 
|)revented  the  explosion."  '  I'hese  successive  discoveries,  the 
results  of  repeated  ex|)eriments  and  careful  thoui^ht,  led  to  the 
invention  of  the  safety-lamp.  The  tirst  safety-lamp  was  made  iii 
the  year  iSi^.  Tliere  is  some  satisfaction  in  rellectin^  that  tlie 
very  v<-':>i"  which  was  memoralile  tor  the  conclusion  of  the  longest 
and  most  destructi\e  of  modern  wais,  was  also  remarkable  toi 
one  of  the  most  beneficial  discoveries  which  have  ever  i)een  ni\en 
to  mankind.  Kven  the  peace  of  Paris  did  not  probably  save  moK- 
life  or  avert  more  suiferinLj  than  Sir  Humphrey  Davy's  invention. 
The  {gratitude  of  a  nation  pro[)erly  bestowed  titles  and  pensions, 
lands  and  houses,  stars  and  honors,  on  the  concpiercn"  of  Napoleon. 
Custom  and  precedent  only  allowed  inferior  rewards  to  the  in- 
ventor of  the  safety-lamp.  Yet  Har;^reaves  and  Arkwri^ht, 
Crompton  and  Cartw  rii;ht,  Watt  and  Davy,  did  more  for  the 
cause  of  mankind  than  even  W'ellini^ton.  Their  lives  had  more 
iutluence  on  their  country's  future  than  the  career  of  tiie  <;reat 
jjcjicral.  His  \  ictories  secured  his  country  peace  tor  rather  more 
than  a  (generation.  Their  in\entions  <;ave  Great  Britain  a  com- 
mercial supr..i.iacy,  which  neither  war  nor  foreign  competition 
has  yet  destroyed. 

A  series  of  extraonlinary  inventions,  at  the  commencement  ot 
the  present  century,  had  supplietl  Great  liritain  with  a  ::.  u 
manufacturiui;:;  vij^or.  Har<4rea\es.  Aikwris^ht,  Crompton,  and 
Cartwri<5ht  had  developed,  to  a  remarkable  de;j^ree,  the  produc- 
ing power  of  man  ;  Watt  had  given  a  new  signilicaiice  to  their 
inventions  bv  superseding  the  feeble  and  uneijual  forces,  which 
had  hitherto  been  used,  with  the  most  tractable  and  powerful  ot 
agents.  And  Davy,  by  his  benelicent  contrivance,  had  enabled 
coal  to  be  won  with  less  danger,  and  had  relievetl  the  miner's 
life  liomone  of  its  most  hideous  perils.  The  ingenuity  of  these 
great  men  had  been  exercised  with  dilVerent  objects;  but  tin 
inventions   of  each   of  them   had   given   fresh  importance  to  the 


.'111 

tin 

I'"' 
the 

it 

(lilt 

the 

i  /  i  I 
con 

tie 

llie 

peii 

Men 

coal 

I  re  I; 

coun 

thcst 


'  Sec  IJnmyhain's  "  Men  (if  I.i'ttcrs  and  Science,"  i>.  ^hi.     The  life  nf  Davy  is  udniirably 
told  liy  I,(ird  liriuijiliain. 


a 


Tin:  (;Ri:.\r  inventions. 


51 


discoveries  of  the  others.  The  sjiimiinfj-jennv.  the  water-fraiiH*, 
and  the  mule  would  have  been  ileprived  of  iialt"  their  value,  if 
tlu'V  had  not  heeii  snj^plemeiited  with  the  powei-Iooui  ;  the 
power-Kfoni  would,  in  many  places,  ha\e  been  useless  without 
the  steam-enj^ine  ;  the  steam-enj^ine  would  liave  been  idle,  had 
it  not  l)L'en  for  dial  ;  tiie  coal  would  not  have  been  won  with- 
out dan;j;er.  had  it  not  bi'en  for  Sir  11.  Davy.  Coal,  then,  was 
the  eonimoditv  whose  extended  use  was  ^laduallv  levolution- 
i/intj  the  world  ;  and  the  })opulatioii  of  the  world,  as  the  first 
consecjuence  of  the  chaiii^e,  "gradually  moved  towards  the  coal 
flehls.  The  chauLje  was  just  commencing  af  the  be^'inniiiLj  of 
the  present  centiu'v  ;  it  was  proceedinD^  with  rapid  strides  at  the 
period  at  which  this  histoiy  opens  ;  its  ultimate  etTects  will  be 
seen  later  on  in  this  work.  The  time  was  to  come  when  the 
coal  measures  of  ICui^land  were  to  draw  awav  the  population  of 
Ireland  ;  to  weaken  the  power  of  the  southern  agricultural 
counties;  to  ijive  predominance  to  the  north  (jf England;  and  by 
these  results  to  involve  a  political  revolution. 


1 1 1 
i'i- 


'if"' 

if'' 


iilr 


«n 


52 


SKLIXTIONS. 


IV. 


IX'ONOMIC    CAISKS    OF    TIIK     IRKNCII    RKVOMTION. 

From  Von  Syiik.i.'s  Kri:m  11  Ri;voi.iTio\,  V'oi,.  I.,  |)p.  21-53. 

In  order  to  l)riii!Lj  this  lujittcr,  in  its  (lc't;iil.s.  more  clcarlv  l)t'roii' 
us,  wc  inav  pass  in  review  the  three  j^reat  classes  into  w  hicli  the 
Frencli  people  were  divided  accordin;^  to  their  occupation.'  H\ 
iar  the  most  important  of  these  occupations,  at  that  period,  was 
jif^riculture.  Nearlv  ji,o{X).o{xj  out  <>t"  35,rKXi.(xxi  of  iidial)- 
itants  were  employed  in  tilling  the  soil.  Of  the  ^  1  .cxxj.cxx) 
hectares  of  which  tlu'  whole  UiiiLjdom  is  composed,  ^^.fxjo.- 
(XX)  were  destined  for  culti\ation,  that  is.  rather  less  than  at 
the  present  day,  hut  more  than  twice  as  much  as  is  now  under 
culti\alion  in  I'^n^land.  It  has  often  hetn  imai^iiied  that  the 
property  of  these  j^reat  masses  of  land  was  almost  entireU'  in  the 
hands  of  the  clunch,  the  monasteries,  the  nobility,  and  the  linaii- 
ciers  :  and  that  before  i /"^'^  oidv  larj^e  estates  existed,  while  the 
class  of  small  projirietors  was  created  by  the  Revolution.  .Some 
consider  this  supposed  chanj^e  as  the  highest  irlory,  and  others 
as  the  greatest  calamitv  of  modern  times;  but  all  are  aLjreed  as 
to  the  tact,  and  the  more  so,  because  it  was  continuallv  pro- 
claimed in  the  debates  of  the  revolutionary  assemblies,  liut,  on 
closer  examination,  we  shall  find  that  the  eU'ectsof  the  feudal  s\  s- 
tem  upon  a;4riculture  are  not  to  be  looked  for  in  this  direction. 
We  cannot  rank  the  authority  of  the  revolutionary  orators  ver\ 
hi<^h,  both  because  thev  had  a  political  interest  in  breakinjjf  up 
the  lai;4e  estates  for  the  advantajfe  of  the  citv  proletaries,  and 
because  they  always  showed  themselves  fabulously  ij^norant  of 
statistics.  if  we  examine  the  state  of  thinj^s  before  1 789.  we 
shall  fnul  that  —  apart  from  the  feudal  tenures  and  the  church 
projiertv  —  even  the  old  French  law  of  iidieritance  bv  no  means 
favored  the  accumulation  of  estates.  The  nobility,  indeed,  werc 
often   lieard   to  complain    that  the   rotiiriers  were  constantly  <^et- 


ai 
si 
01 
ill 
li< 
\\ 


'  In  clniwinu  up  the  fiillowiii;;  st;itiimiil  uc  havi'  iliicHy  consulted  the   "  St;iti<ti(|uc  tiii 
isterielle  ile  la  1'  r.ime,"  and  the  adniirahle  ucirks  iit'  Miireau  de  ^'ouue:  and  also  Laveri;i;   , 
"  Keonouiie  ruralc."     The   latter  jfivcs  much  infnrniatiou  respectini;  the   earlier  .state  -  i 
thiii};s,  which  now  and  then,  however,  rei[uires  e.\aniinatinn  and  corrccti m. 


CAISKS    ()!•     IHl".    KKKNCII    Ri;\<  )I.r  I  I()\. 


53 


\'\\vjr  possession  of  1:111(1  ;  which  is  iiiti'llij^ihlc  cnouj^h.  since  the 
iiiont'Vfd  chisscs  were  continiKiUy  ^ainin^  <j^r<)Uiul  on  the  ancient 
uiistocracv.  It  foUows  that  tiiere  was  nothini,^  in  the  circnni- 
slances  of"  the  a^e  to  reiuKr  the  (h\  ision  of  hind  inipossiiile  ;  aiul 
(.neofthi-  most  ciedihic  witnesses,  alter  tiirec  years'  investigation 
in  all  tiie  French  provinces,  tells  ns,  as  the  resnlt  ot'  his  ol)serva- 
tions.  that  al)ont  a  third  ot"  the  land  was  held  by  small  proprietors, 
who  were  sniliciently  | 


pros 


pe 


rons  in  Flanders,  Alsace,  liearn,  and 


the  nortli  of  15reta;,'ne  ;  hnt  in  other  parts,  especially  in  Lorraine 
and  Champaj^ne,  p(j(jr  and  miserahle.  The  division  of  property, 
he  observes,  is  carried  to  too  <^reat  an  extent;  "1  have  fre- 
(|uentlv  seen  ])roperties  of  ten  roods  with  a  sinj^le  frnit-tree  ; 
excessive  division  oip^ht  to  he  t"orl)idden  by  law." 

The  w  itness  is  Arthnr  Youn<»,  one  of  the  lirst  aLjricnltnrists  of 
the  pe;  iod  in  I'-nrope.  who  <;ave  this  testimony  al"ter  indefati<4al)le 
incinirv  ;  and  his  report  is  ctjiitirmed  hv  nati\e  antiioi  ities. 

"The  snl)(li\  ision  of  land,"  says  Turcot,  "is  carried  to  such 
an  extent,  that  a  propeity,  oidy  jnst  sniliciiMit  tor  one  fandlv,  is 
divided  amon;4  live  or  six  ciiildren."  "  The  landed  estates," 
writes  an  intcndant,  "  are  broken  up  systematically  to  a  verv 
aiarminj^  de-^^ree  ;  the  fields  are  divided  and  subdivided  ail  infini- 
imii."  Such  was  the  case  amon<f  the  small  proprietors;'  the 
other  two-thirds  of  the  soil  was  entirelv  in  the  possession  of  tlie 
jjreat  land-owners  —  consistinj:^  jiartlv  of  the  nobilitv  and  clerj^v, 
and  paitly  of  mairistrates  and  tinanciers.  We  shall  presently  iii- 
(|uire,  in  what  manner  thev  turned  their  lands  to  profit  ;  but  we 
mav  lirst  of  all  observe  tiiat  a  middle  class  of  proprietors,  sub- 
stantial enou;j;h  to  derive  from  their  land  a  sullicient  livelihood, 
and  yet  humble  enouLjh  to  be  bound  to  constant  and  dili<;ent 
labor,  was  entirely  wantin<j.  In  the  present  dav  the  landed 
proprietors  of  France  may  be  divided  into  three  sections,  each  of 
which  possesses  al)out  one-third  of  the  productive  soil  of  the 
country.  ICi^iiteen  million  hectares  belong  to  iS^.fxx)  threat 
landed  owners;  fourteen  luillions  to  700,000  proprietors  of  the 
middle  class,  and  fourteen  millions  to  not  (piite  four  millions  of 
peasant  owners.''  When  we  compare  these  fij^ures  witli  those  of 
the  pre-revolutionary  period,  wc  find  the  lumdier  of  poor  posses- 
N(Ms  exactly  correspondiiifr  to  one  another  ;  and,  what  is  very  re- 


'  Qjioted  by  Tocciueville,  "  L' Ancien  R^pime,"  60. 

-  Cochut,  "  Kcviie  (Ic  Dfiix  Mondfs,"  Sept.,  1*548;   Rossi,  "  Ecoiioiiiif  politique,"  p.  ,5^5, 
ft  scq. 


Hi 


■a' 


if: 


54 


SKI.KCTIONS. 


m.'irkaMc,  tliev  nrc  almost  exactly  llic  same   !ii   iSy  as  in    1.S15. 
Tiu'  most  Icari'iil  storms  pass  over  the  smtaco  of  tlu-  land  witlioiit 


piodiiciiij;  any  cliaiij^c  m  tlii'sc  relations. 


lint 


what  the  movement 


of  I  7S9 — tlie  emaneipation  of  liic  soil,  and  civil  ccpialitv  —  did 
])ro(hice,  is  this  middle  class  of  proprietors,  wiiich  now  possesses 
one-thii(I  of  the  land.  It  nuist  he  confessed  that  this  is  a  most 
remarkahle  resnll.  I  low  often  has  it  heen  aimounced  hy  feudal- 
ists and  socialists,  that  entire  freedom  of  trade  would  inevita- 
hlv  lead  to  the  annihilation  of  the  middle  classes,  and  leave 
nothinjj;  hut  milli :)nnaires  and  proletaries  I  We  here  see  the  verv 
contrarv  pioM-d  hy  one  of  the  i^randest  historical  facts.  'Die 
feudal  svstem,  hy  its  restrictions,  crushed  the  aj^ricnltural  middle 
class;  the  rule  of  freedom  created  it  afresii.  Let  us,  ho\ve\er, 
consider  the  position  of  these  lords  of  the  soil  and  tlicir  depend- 
ents more  closelv. 

The  hrst  fact  wliich  meets  us  in  this  in\esti<j;ati<>n  is  an  un- 
happy one.  It  was  oidy  an  excessively  small  minority  of  the 
j^rcat  'and-ow  mis  w  ho  concerned  themselves  ahout  theii'  estates 
and  tenants.  All  who  were  at  all  ahle  to  <lo  so  hurried  awav  to 
the  enjo\  nieiits  of  the  court  or  the  capital,  and  oidv  returned  to 
their  properties  to  fill  the  purse  \vhich  had  heen  emptied  hv 
their  excesses.  There  they  lived  in  miserly  and  shahhv  retire- 
nie!it ;  sometimes  in  wretchedly  furnished  castles,  shumied  hv  the 
peasants  as  pitiless  creditors;  sometimes  in  the  midst  of  forests 
and  wastes,  that  they  miLjht  have  the  pleasures  of  the  chase  close 
at  hand.  They  took  as  little  interest  in  intellectual  suhjects  as  in 
ajxricultural  atl'airs,  and  cherished  little  or  no  intercourse  witii 
tiieir  nei;4iil)ors ;  partly  from  parsiniony,  and  partlv  from  the 
entire  want  of  local  roads.  When  the  period  of  Tistini^  was 
over,  they  rushed  eajrerly  hack  to  the  allurinjjf  haiupiets  of  Paris 
and  Wrsailles.  The  numher  of  exceptions  to  this  melancholy 
rule  was  so  small  as  to  exercise  no  inlluence  on  the  "general  con- 
dition of  the  country. 

While  these  gentlemen  were  sciuanderin<j  the  produce  of  their 
estates  in  aristocratic  splendor,  their  lields  were  let  out  in  parcels 
often  or,  at  most,  fifteen  //rrAr/vw,  to  the  so-called  metayers,  \\\\i> 
did  not  pay  a  fixed  rent,  hut  generally  half  the  <^ross  produce, 
and  received  from  the  owner,  in  return,  their  first  seed-corn,  their 
cattle,    and  a«?ricultural    implements.'      This   system   yielded    a 


'  (^iicsiiay  in  D.iiti',  "  I'liy.sincratis,"  p.  jk;,  i-t  Sfi]. ;  Young's  "  Triivcls,"  II.   190;    Liillii 
«tc  ChatLMuvii'iix,  1.  i'u. 


th'.'ir 
luccls 

who 
(luce, 
I  their 
|c<l    ;. 

iLultiii 


CAISKS   Ol'     llli:    IKKNCII    Ri;\()I  T  1  |()\. 


.''J 


wuttlu'il  cxistfiuc  for  the  ti'ii;mts  thcinsi-h  is.  and  lediiicil  tlii' 
estates  to  a  inisi'iahle  coinhtioii,  luit  it  broiiL;ht  the  owners  a  hiri,u' 
tiioui^h  uncertain  income.  Tlie  latter,  who  only  saw  tlieir  estates 
as  travellers,  weic   accustomed   to  farm  out  the  colli-ction  ot"  their 


(lues. 


'jenerallv    to    a    iiotarv  or   an    a<lvocate,   who    treated    the 


tenants  with   merciless  severity. 

The  peasants,  in  their  turn,  ne<;lected  llie  culli\alion  of"  corn  — 
of  which  they  had  to  )^'\\c  up  a  moiety  —  lor  an\  chance  occn|)a- 
tiiiii.  the  whole  prolit  <»(  wlii(  h  tell  to  themselves;  tlie\'  used  their 
oxen  rather  lor  purposes  ol'  transport  than  t"oi'  |)lou;^hinj;,  fat- 
tened their  jfcese  in  their  own  wheat  llelds,  and,  ahove  all, 
introduced  the  svstem  of  alteruatinL;  crop  and  fallow,  in  ordei' 
to  uet  a  i^reater  extent  of  pasture,  and  consiipii'iitlv  a  Iari,^i-r 
niimhrr  of  cattle.  This  was  a  persf)nal  yain  to  themselves,  hut 
evidentlv  hroULjht  no  adxantaj^e  to  the  estate.  .V  system  of  til- 
la<;e,  in  short,  prevailed  without  industry,  without  science,  ;md, 
ahove  all,  without  capital.  It  lias  heen  calculated  that  the  avi-r- 
a<;e  amouiU  of  capital  employed  at  that  period  in  the  I'rciuh 
tuctairics.  was   from    p)  to   60  francs   to    the   hectare;   while    in 


I'jiirl; 


md.  at  the  same  time,  the  avera;_je  anionnti'd  to 


|()t 


lancs. 


The  result  was,  of  course,  a  wretched  one;  the\-  only  n-ckoned 
upon  a  crop  from  seven  to  ei^^ht  Jirctolitrcs  of  wlu'at  to  the  //(■<■- 
tare. —  the  increase  heini^  from  live  to  six  fold;  while  the  I'Jii^lish 
farmer  of  that  lime  obtained  a  twelve-fold  increase.  It  was  impos- 
sihlc  for  the  peasant  under  such  circumstances  to  uaiu  a  livelihood  ; 
the  produce  often  //eetares  was  scarceK'  sulKcient  to  support  his 
lamiK  .  and  sale  and  profit  were  out  of  the  (piestion.  The  man  who 
is  thus  condemned  to  pass  his  life  in  starvation,  soon  learns  to  fold 

A  constantlv  incveasiiiLj  extent  of  country 
lay  uncultivated,  which  (^uesiiax .  in  lys^i  estimated  at  a  cpiarter 
of  thearahle  land  of  France,  and  Arthur  ^'oul^^,  in  i7()0,  at  more 
than  i).ooo,ooo  //cctares.  Millions  of  rural  dwellint^s  had  no  api'i- 
tiire  in  them  hut  the  door,  or  at  most  one  w  indow  :  "^  tlie   peo])le 


his  hands  in  idlenei 


had    no   clothiiiir 


hut 


a    home-m 


ule.  coarse,   and    \  et  not    thick. 


wodHcu  cloth  ;   in   manv  provinces  evcrv  one  went  barefoot,  and 
in  others  onlv  wooden  shoes  were  known.      The  t'ood  of  the  peo- 
^       pie  was  {ifruel  with  a  little  lard  ;   in  the  evcninj^  a  piece  of  bread, 
?       and  on  <;reat  occasions  a  little   bacon  ;  but,  besides  this,  no  meat 

'  Artlnir  Vnuii^r,  H.  249.     Tlit-  cIiliT  Miral)eau  reckons  fur  tlio  wliulc  of  Kniiice,  ^16  francs 

t"   lllc   lUf'i-lll. 

■  I'lii.s  is  still  the  case. 


11 

■  i; 

li  1 
( 

l.' 

1 

i  '  1  '•   .      ^ 

•mi; 


ilf 


5^' 


SKI.I'.CIIONS. 


f(»r  niontlis  tDf^ctluT,  niid    in  tii.iiiy  districts  tio  wiiio  al  all.'     Tlu' 
MK'tital    condition   of  tlu'  pi-opk'  was  in    accordance    with    ihcii 


external  circumstances.  Hooks  and  nc\vs|xi|)crs  wcic  as  little 
known  in  the  villa<^es  as  readiu'^  and  wiilinii;.  The  peasants  de- 
pended lor  instructions  on  their  pastors  and  parish  clerks,  prole- 
taries like  themselves,  who  \ei y  seldom  <^ot  heyoud  the  hori/.oii 
of  the  church  stei'ple.  The  Chinch  was,  after  all,  the  oidy  insti- 
tution that  threw  an  intillectual  spark  into  their  wretched  life  ; 
hut  unfortunately  their  reliifious  impulses  were  stronuly  mixed 
with  harharism  and  superstition.  In  many  lar;^e  districts  of  the 
south  the  peasants  had  no  other  idea  of  a  I'rotestant  than  as  ot' 
a  danj^erous  magician  who  ou^^ht  to  he  knocked  on  the  head. 
Their  own  faith,  moreo\er,  was  interwoven  with  a  multitude  of  the 
strangest  images  of  old  Celtic  heathenism.  Of  the  world  outside 
they  heard  nothin;^,  for  there  was  next  to  no  tratlic  or  traxellinn 
itt  the  country.  There  were  some  royal  roads,  maj;iiiticentl\ 
made,  and  sixty  leet  in  breadth  —  splendid  monuments  of  mo- 
narchical ostentation.  On  these,  however,  up  to  I77'>.  onlv  two 
small  coaches  ran,-'  throu<jhout  the  whole  of  Trance  ;  and  the  tra\ 
eller  mi^^ht  pass  whole  days  without  <;ettinj^  sij^ht  of  any  othei 
vehicle.^  Oidy  few  \illaj4es,  in  the  most  favored  provinces,  pos- 
sessed cross-roads  to  these  jji'reat  hij^hways,  or  to  the  neatest  market 
town.  And  thus  the  whole  existence  of  these  people  was  passed 
in  toil  atid  jirivation  ;  \\  ithout  any  pleasures  except  the  si^ht  ol' 
tlie  <fau(ly  decorations  of  a  few  chutch  festivals;  without  an\ 
chan<j[e,  save  when  hunj^er  drove  an  individual,  here  tmd  there, 
to  seek  dav-lahor  in  the  tow  11s,  or  into  militarv  service.  It  was 
seldom  that  such  a  one  ever  returned  to  his  father's  house,  so  that 
his  fellovv-villajfers  <faincd  no  advantage  Iroin  his  wider  experi- 
ence. 

L'nder  these  circumstances   the    relation  between   peasant  and 
lord  was  naturally  a  deplorable  one.    What  we  have  already  said. 
suHiciently  characterizes  a   community,    in   which  all   the  eiijo\ 
ments    I'ell    to  the  rich,  and  all  the   l)urdens  were   heape(l  ii| 

II  1  t,-i  I. 


the  poor.      In  aristocratic  En<j;land  at  t 

irross   nr<)ceeds  was   considered  a   hitrh  rent  for  a  fai 


pel 


'!• 


i>i 


wner,  moreover,  paid  large  titlies  and  poor-rates 


tith( 


I'r 


;uice 


'  Hipiirts  of  till'  Prcffcts  to  tin-  Ministry,  iS<ij. 

'^  !•;.  Diiiri',  "  Iiitrodiu'tion  aux  CKiivrcs  clu  TiirjiDt." 

•'' Vomit's  "  Travels. " 

*  V\frnoiii,  "  Talikau  Jos  IVrtcs,"  itc. 


CAisiis  n|.  nil:  I'kr.Ncii  Kr.V(»i.iii<)\. 


57 


liulf  the  proccfds  was  the  usicil  rent ;  and  the  owners  were  ex- 
iinpted  l)v  their  privile;fes  fVoin  many  pnltlie  hurdens.  which  fell 
witii  dduhle  wi'i^ht  upon  the  wietehiil  im'tttYit's.  Thiis,  the 
pioihue  ot"  the  I'^eneh  land,  as  compared  with  the  I'^ii^hsh, 
was  nine  f<»  f'omti'en,  whiU'  the  rents  ol'  an  I^ii;^lisli  land-<i\\  ui'f 
Were  at  the  rate  of"  two  and  threolbnrths  pi'r  cent.,  and  those  of 
the  I'rench  land-owner  three  and  three-fourths  per  cent.' 

Till'  dellciiMicy  in  the  product  of  tlie  land,  therefon-.  atlected 
the  yains  of  the  little  t'armei'  douMy.  In  addition  to  this  hi-  was 
liintiened  1)\  a  nimd>er  of  feudal  services,  1)\  lurced  lahoi  on  the 
hinds  of  his  lord,  l)\  tithes  to  the  church,  and   hy  the  oliliination 


to  make  roads  for  the  State.      The  landlord  who  triid   t 


O      SI 


II 


nis 


rent  in  kind  as  dearly  as  possihle,  wished  for  \\\)^\\  prices  of  corn  ; 
the  pe.isanl,  who,  after  pa\  in;^  his  dues,  did  not  raise  i-noui^h  for 
iiis  own  t'amily,  longed,  like  the  city  proletaiy.  for  low  prices. 
Ill  short,  these  two  classes,  so  intimately  connected  with  one  an- 
(itlier.  ||ad  nothiii<4  at  all  in  common  ;  in  education,  in  interests 
and  eiiiovments,  they  were  as  w  idely  separated  as  the  iiihahitants 
of  ditlerent  (piarters  of  the  j^lohe,  and  re<;arded  each  «.ther 
res|)cctivelv  w  ith  conliMn|)t  and  hatred.  When  the  peasant  looketl 
upon  the  towers  of  his  IokI's  castle,  the  dearest  w  ish  of  his  heart 
was  to  hurn  it  down,  with  all  its  rci^isti-rs  of  deht.  Ileie  and 
tl;ere  a  better  state  of  things  existed  ;  hut  we  can  onl\  hiiii;^  for- 
ward two  exceptions  to  the  melancholy  rule,  extiMidiun  o\er  lari;e 
tracts  of  coimtry.  In  .\njou  the  system  of  nutairic  prevailed  as 
ill  Lower  Hreta^ne  and  Guieime  ;  and  yet  in  the  former  pro\  ince. 
the  peasants  were  prosperous,  and  the  nohlemen  heloxed.  Lower 
Poitoii  was  the  onlv  province  from  which  the  nohles  had  not 
allowed  themselves  to  he  enticed  int(j  the  w  hirljjool  of  lourt  lite. 
The  nobleman  dwelt  in  his  own  castle,  the  real  lord  of  his 
domains,  the  cultivator  of  his  fielils,  the  "guardian  ol'  his  peasants. 
He  advanceil  them  money  to  purchase  the  necessary  stock,  and 
iiixlructed  them  in  the  mana<j[ement  of  their  cattle  ;  ''  the  expul- 
sion of  a  tenant  was  a  thin<^  imhearil  of;  the  laborei"  was  born  on 
the  estate,  and  the  landlord  was  the  jiodtather  of  all    his  larmers' 


children.      1  le  was  otten  seen  <(om<^  to  ntarket  with    his    peasants, 
ti)  sell   their   oxen   tor  them  as  advantaj^eously  as  possible.      11  i> 


m 


ental  hori/on,  however,  did  not  extend   bevond  these  honorable 


II 


•kill 


f 


111 


cares:   he  honored  God  and  the  Kin<r,  laborctl  in  his  own   liel(l> 


■  Siiiivejjruii: 


'  Coiisiilcratioiis  sur  la  Population,"  etc,     I'ari-;,  iS<X). 


M 


m\ 


1  i 


58 


si:i,i'('ii()\'s. 


wn*;  ;i  <4<)(nl  spoilsin.tii  ;in<I    toper,  .iiid  Know  ;is  liillc  of  llu-  wmlil 
Miiii    ils  I  i\  ili/,itii)n  .is  his  toii;iiits. 

In    till'    iiDiiii    (it    till'    kiii'^dom   n    nioic    modriii   st.itc  of  tliiii'^s 


\\,n\    iTii  i\\  n    111). 


U"     SCIMI.     \\  llo 


W  llU  II    W.IS 


liiTi',  \\»;illli\    i'.iriiicrs  we'll'    to    1 
lulil    tluii     l.ind    on    Icj^i-    at    :i    li\cd    nioncx    rcnl.il, 
M'ltlid   ai\oi(liii^   to   till'   ainoiinf  ol    the  taxi's  |o  \\  hii  li   tlu'\'  wi'ir 
lial'lc.        and  who  liioii'-hl  hoth   skill   and  i'.ii>it.il  to   tin*   inaiKi'T- 


inrnt 
All 


thrir   land 


his  \\;is   till'   ii'.'nlar  praitur  in 


(  (IS. 


u  ai  I 


l\.     \ 


<  >i'ni  iiKJx 


till' 


IsK 


.t"    !• 


r.iiiii' 


I'l; 


IIKI 


mdiTs. 

otIllT 


snialli'i     di-'ti  uts. 


In    tlii'sr    parts    tin 


Miidlords    h.id   a   rirt;iin 


ir\  riiui' 


aiK 


I    I 


u'.r 


lan.l 


\  u 


Idi 


wa'N  111  till'  hands  ot    the  »/i'fiJV<Ts. 


t\\  ii 
1" 


as 


nun  h    as    that    win 


I'll 


11'  \\  lioK'   idiiiitr\   woir  till' 


appeal  aiui'  ol  a  garden,  and  the  pooler  iiei'^hliors  toiind  liierative 
einplo\  iiieiit  at  the  stalrlv  farmdionses.  'I'liesr  were  the  same 
pro\  inees  in  which  Arthur  ^'olln;J;^  met  w  itii  small  proprietors  in 
a  t<ilerahle  eondition.  If  a  peasant  in  this  part  ol'  the  e<iiiiitrv 
pusM'ssitl  a  small  strip  ol  land  near  his  eotta'j;e.  lai^c  enmp^Ii  to 
L'low  some  \  e^etahli's.  t'ooil  lor  a  -.^oal.  or  a  liw  vines,  he  earned 
sullieieiit  to  supph  the  list  o|"  his  wants,  in  da\  wa'^es  iVoiu  the 
rarnu'is.  or,  as  a  weaxer.  tVoni  the  nei;_;lil>orin;4  mamiraetiirers. 

Ili.s  was  a  eondition  similar  to  the  normal  one  ol"  the  ]KMsaiit 
proprietors  in  V'ranee  at  the  present  dav  :  who  are  not  ledtieed 
taniiers.  luil  lahoiers  who  have  iinested  tlii'ir  sa\iiiL,'s  in  land.' 
It  was  more  dillieult  for  thesi-  peopir  to  make  a  livelihood  at  that 
time  than  now.  heemisi'  there  were  fewer  m;miilaetm  ers  and 
wealthy  a^rieulliirists.  lC\eept  in  the  ahovc-meiitioned  provinees, 
these  jH'ttv  proprietors  were  e(piall\  wretched  and  hopeless  with 
the  /;/<•'/(/ iv'/'.v.  In  whom  thev  were  snrronnded  ;  their  oiilv  ohjeet 
xvas  to  rent  a  nit/iiiiir  in  addition  to  their  own  pittance  ot'  land, 
Thex  xxeii'  in  I'.ict  entirelx'  lost  si^ht  of  amoni;  the  i>/i'f,rvcrs,  and 
this  is  th^  reason  that  I'rench  x\  liters,  in  their  descriptions  of  the 
so-called  /^if/ft'  ciilhirc  (plot  farmiiiL;).  nexer  make  aiiv  special 
mention  of  them,  hnl  alxxaxs  confound  them  xvith  the  more 
numerous  class  In'  which  thex'  \xere  surrounded.  .\11  authorities 
are  a;j:reeel  in  estimatiiiL:  the  amount  of'  land  cultixated  in  small 
parcels,  at  j".ikx).  hk:)  hectares^  xxh.ile  oiilx'  <).o(K).ixx)  xx'ere  hi'Id 
at  a  monex  rent.  The  former,  therefore,  was  neaily  equally 
dix  iiled  hetxxeen  the  small  oxx  n-vs  and  the  tnvtaycrs^  xxho  paid 
their  rent  in  kind. 


.lie 


am 


aiH 


rati) 


re  SI 


Milt 


'  Uo>>i,  I. 


h'  I" 


C.M'sr.S    (>!••    Illi:    IRINCll    RIVoirilnv. 


59 


III  I'l.iiiif.  ;il  till-  prcsiiil  il;i\',  iic.iils'  2^,(K)().()(x)  /ui  lines 
,iu' t  iilti\  .itrd  liv  siiimII  ])n>|)rii'l<)rs  :iiiil  w/A/ivv.s  ;  mImuiI  S.fHX).- 
(ioo'  (the  siiiiu'  ;is  in  17'*^")  l'\  tiii:iiits  pax  iii'_,f  a  iiiuiicv  rent, 
iind  rallict  inoii-  than  nine  ami  a  liall  inillioiis,  li\  wcaltliv 
laiKlliirds,-'  llciux'  \\c  can  (  icai  l\'  scr  what  lli<-  I'lcmli  Kcvo- 
liilioii  has  (Idiu-  fill-  l''r('ii(  h  aL^rit  iilliiic.  Not  <ml\  <li<|  if  i  icalc 
the  liiidilU'  idass  u|  laiid-ow  uci  s,  liiit  i^^icallv  piuiiiutcd  a  iiiort' 
i.itiiMial  s\stcm  <)!  tilla^i-.  AImhiI  I<hii-  niilliuii  licclorrs  ha\c  Ikcii 
K  SI  lied  lioiii  the  f^ilitc(iiltiir(\  aiwl  an  i-ipial  iiiiiiilx'i  iC(|ccmcd 
Imiii  iilUr  liai  iciiiiiss.  Tlu'  hrcadlh  ut  land  staiidhii;  at  a  iiioiicv 
iciit  is  (AatiK  till'  same  as  hi'loic  the  i<(\  ojiit  ion.  'I'lir  iiuirasc 
is  cut  it  civ  ill  till'  |)r(»pc'itifs  of  I  irh  or  siiii'-taiitial  land -owners,  who 
iiianaj^e  their  own  eslati-s,  —  whieh  indicates  a  i  haii'^e  to  more 
/calous  indiislrs,  coupled  with  the  i'mplo\ment  ot'  '^nater  capi- 
tal. The  extent  occupied  bv  the  nirttiycrs  is  still  sciv  ^reat,  and 
till'  condition  ot  those  who  are  snlijec  t  to  it  hnt  little  iinpioxcd, 
iiolwitlistandint,'  the  aholition  of  socage'  and  sei'^nioiial  ri;^hts.  It 
w  ill  he  OIK-  of  our  most  important  tasks  to  examine  the  si-\trai 
cMiits  and  tendencies  ot  the  Kexohitioii,  in  K  lation  to  theiretlects 
on  the  rural  |)opnlation. 

It'  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  towns  of  .iik  ient  I'lai,  ■  we 
find  that  similar  causis  produced  elicits  coi  respondiir^  to  those 
\\c  ha\e  just  desii  il)i-d.  The  ci\  ic  ollices.  to  which  persons  had 
liinnerl\  lnen  elected  \>\  the  distiiils  or  the  'guilds,  had  lieell 
lic(|nentlv  lilU-d  up  hv  thecKiwn  in  the  17th  centnr\  ;  and  in  the 
iMli.  the  ^reat  inajoritv  ot'  them  were  s(.ld  in  heredilarv  posses- 
sion to  till  the  exchei|nc-r.''  The  i^rovcrmnent  ot'  the  towns,  there- 
loif,  was  in  the  hands  of"  a  close  corporation  consistiii'^  of  a  tew 
t.miilies,  who.  <_;inerall\  spc-akin;^,  allowed  tliemst  |\  cs  to  he  in- 
Iccted  with  the  indolent  and  self-seehin'^  spirit  of  the  central  "4'i\- 
eriiinent.  .\ss<)ciated  with  these  were  the  tainilics  of  the  moiieved 
aristocracv,  the  inemhers  of  the  j.'.real  linancial  companies,  the 
tanners  of  the  indirect,  and  the  collectors  ol  the  diri-ct.  taxes,  the 
shareholders  of  the  trading;  monopolies,  and  the  ;4reat  hanUeis. 
I  liese  circles,  too,  were  either  leL;aIl\  or  \  ii  tualls  chisi-d  to  the 
Uciieral  world.  The  Ixuose  was  iidcd  l>\  an  aristocracv.  to 
which  onl\-  hiitli,  or  the   permission  of  ;^overnment,  conid   ;4i\e 


'  <^iicsn:ii,  Tiiriri.f,  Vniinir. 

-  On  this  poj  111  l.iillimli',  t'liatiMin  icux,  iiiul  Cmliiit  arc   in  the  iii.iiii  wyncd.     I.a.LT'^i'ii-.' 
Iii.'iirts  an-  shiiuwIkiI  ililliriiit,  hut  the  miiiral  rtsull  is  llir  saiiir. 

'•  Di'ppiiig,  "  C'cirris|>"iKli-iiti;  atliiiiiiislrativc  dc  I.ipuis  XI\'  ,"  Vol.  II.,  Iiitrodiicti'iii, 


■ 
it 


.A 


fin 


nnf 


60 


SEI.i:CTI()NS. 


ncco^s.  'riu'ir  activity  was  ot' course  noccssarilv  coiiticd  in  l^l^i^. 
Indt'L'd,  thfv  stamped  tiifir  own  cliaiactcr  on  this  citv  to  a  df<frci' 
wliicii  would  1)0  inipossihlc  in  our  aiLfc,  notorious  though  it  be  as 
IIk'  L'pnch  ol  the  rule  ot*  paper.  K\erv  one  knows  to  what  a 
di/,z\'  and    iiiinous   heij^ht  stock- johhinsr  was  canii'd   hv   law.    in 


tl 


le    hi'^innin^-   ot"   the  centnrv 


and    tVoni   that  time   loiward    it- 


operations    were   never    snsneni 


led, 


and 


dl 


wlio   had   wealth    01 


1th 


eiedit  eni^a<^ed  in  it  with  reckless  greediness.  KinLjs,  nobles, 
ministers,  clerL(y.  and  parliaments,  one  and  all,  took  part  in  these 
transactions;  and  the  chronic  delicit,  and  increasint,^  debts,  of  tlu' 
treasnr\'  alVorded  constant  opj>ortunities  ot'  invoKin;^  the  State, 
and  makiniLj  a  prolit  out  of  its  embarrassments.  We  mav  con- 
lidentK'  assert  that,  as  compared  with  the  present  day.  tlu' 
speculative  swindling  of  that  a^e  was  as  prevalent  and  as  shame- 
less as  its  immorality  Paris  was  not  at  that  time  a  mann- 
facturini;  town,  and  its  wholesale  trade  was  insio-nilicant  ;  with 
lew  exceptions,  theri'tore,  the  industrv  of  the  cit\-  consisted  in 
retail  trade  and  the  negotiation  of  bills  ot'  exchanne.  It  is  not 
the  least  cliaracteristic  feature  of  the  indolent  and  seltisli  licen- 
tiousness, into  which  the  hii^her  classes  of  a  ji^reat  nation  had 
t'allen.  that  ol"  all  securities,  lil'e  amnnties  were  most  in  favor;  b\ 
means  of  which  the  jjurcha-ser  procured  hinh  interest  tor  himsell, 
while  he  rolpl)ed  his  children  ot'  the  capital. 

The  trade  and  commerce  of  the  whole  empire  was  fetteied  b\ 
the  restrictions  ot'  <j,uilds  and  corporations.  'I"he  principles  on 
which  they  were  conducted  dated  from  Ilemv  111.,  who  was  the 
tirst  to  promul<,fate  the  pioposition  that  the  kin^  alone  can  <;rant 
the  rij^ht  to  labor.  —  a  maxim  which  contains  the  whole  doctrine 
of  the  s(»cialists  from  a  monarchical  point  of  \  iew  .  The  masters 
ot  e\(.r\  handicraft  mana'^ed  its  internal  all'airs,  allowed  no  one 
to  practise  it  who  did  not  Ih'Ioul;  to  their  ^niild,  and  admitted  nn 
one  to  their  pri\  ile;j;es,  until  he  had  passed  an  exaniination  of  his 
(jualilication  bel'ore  themselves.  Originally  manv  trades  weie 
tree  Imm  this  ori^fani/ation,  until  these  loo  weie  injurioush 
afl'ecteil  1)\  the  tinancial  necessities  of  the  State  ;  when  the  exchi- 
si\e  rii^hts  (tt  a  nuild  were  sold  to  the  artisans,  as  their  oflici- 
were  to  the  jud<jjes.  The  j^overmnent  soon  I'urther  proceeded  tn 
divide  each  trade  into  several  guilds,  and  made  an  exclusive  cor- 
poration of  the  most  insi<4niticant  occupation.  Thus  the  workeis 
in  ebonv  weie  <listin<^uished  from  the  carpc-nters,  the  sellers  ni 
okl  clothes  from  the  tailors,  aiul  the  pastr\-cooks  from  the  baker--. 


(ArsFS   ()!••   TllK    FRKNCH    Kl'VoI.r'I K  )\. 


6i 


rkti' 

MS    II 

Ikei- 


'I'lii-  fruit-woiiun  iip.d  tlowt'i-^irls  fornicd  sfp.irati'  cxcliisivt.'  asso- 
(.■i;iti()iis,  rc'mihittHl  l)y  lorinal  and  !)iiidini;-  statutc>.  In  the  j,'iiilds 
(if  the  sL-ainstrcsses,  cnihroidcicrs,  and  (Ii\'ss-iiiakcTs,  onlv  men 
\mtl'  achiiitted  to  the  pri\ile}^es  ot'  masters.  A  numlier  <>t"  tliese 
statutes,  1)V  imposinj;  excessive  tees  and  (Uities,  rendered  it  douMv 
ilillicnlt  lor  an  apprentice,  however  capaMe.  to  ohtain  the  iaid\  ot* 
master.  Other  enactments  onlv  achnitteil  the  sons  ot'  masteis.  or 
the  second  hnsliands  of  tlie  widows  of  masters,  to  the  pi  iviK'<,a's 
(if  tlie  jiiiiUl.  In  shoit.  the  powxT  of  thi'  State  was  ahused  in  tlie 
most  L;lai"in'4'  maniu'i'  tor  tiie  fmtlierance  of  i'xchisi\e  chiss  in- 
terests. Thdse  wlio  did  not  l)eh)nL,'  to  this  arisfocracv  of  trade, 
conld  (>id\  snpport  themselves  by  th.e  lalior  of  their  hands,  in  a 
state  of  eternal  ser\itn(le.  Despair  and  famine  dro\e  the  pi'asants 
tViini  the  coniitr\-  into  the  towns,  where  thev  foniid  no  einplov- 
miiit  u\)c\\  to  them  hut  that  of  dav-laI)orers.  The  important 
iiilhience  wliich  this  s\stem  exercised  o\er  tlie  State  was  clearlv 
understood,  hntli  hs  the  privilcLjed  and  the  excluded  clashes. 
When  Tuimit  abolished  the  j^iiilds  in  177b.  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  the  princes,  peers,  and  doctors,  unanimously  declared  that 
all  Frenchmen  weie  divided  into  close  coi|)oralions,  the  links  of 
a  inii,dit\'  chain  extendin}^  from  the  throne  to  the  meanest  haiidi- 
cralt  ;  and  that  this  concatenation  was  indispiiis;ilili.'  to  the  exist- 
tnce  ol'  the  Stati'  and  of  social  order.  It  was  not  loii'^  hefoie  the 
j^iiilds  were  reestablished  in  accor<lance  with  this  di'claration  :  we 
shall  see  Ikjw  the  jonrnevmen  and  apprentices  replied  to  this 
unctuous   manifesto  some   tilteen   vears   later. 

'I'he  Ljreat  manul'acturin;^  interests  ot'the  couiitr\  wtae  confmed 
bv  the  same  narrow  restrictions.  Since  the  time  of  C'oliiei  t.  who 
was  tlie  real  creator  ot  them,  manufactures  had  been  the  darlinj^ 
child  of  the  i^oN  ernmeiil ;  and.  as  is  usualh  the  case  with  darliii«i; 
children,  had  bei'ii  petted  and  tsranni/id  o\er  at  the  same  time. 
\\  hen  Colbert  bcLjan  his  operations.  France  pniiluced  neither  the 
liner  kinds  ol  cloth,  no|-  stock injjjs — tu'ithvr  silks  nor  ".jlass  — 
neither  tar  nor  soap.  The  previously  existin-j;  handicraft  —  whicii 
liid  been  tor  a  rcnturv  in  the  fetters  of  the  j^Miihl —  had  done  so 
little  to  di-veliip  the  native  manufacturing^  talent  mI'  tliecuuiitiv 
that  the  ninister  was  oblii^ed  to  introduce  ( ierman.  .Swedish,  and 
Italian  workmen.  I'o  secure  a  sale  in  loreiL^ni  countries  he  pre- 
scribed with  <;reat  exactness  the  sort  of  fabric  which  he  wished 
to  be  produced;  and,  to  prevent  competition  from  without  he 
enacted  a  number   of  prohibitory  aiul    prolecli\e   iluties.      Here, 


il 


I  H- 


if"'  '^. 

Win. 

if"" 


62 


si;i.i:ci"i()\s. 


aj^;iiii,  till-  power  of  flic  State  intruded  itself  into  the  sphere  of 
private  hiisiness.  to  the  advant.iL^e  of  the  maiiiiraetiirer  and  the  iii- 
jiirv  ol"  the  consumer,  'llic  same  s\stem  was  continued  hv  his 
successors  with  still  worse  ellccts,  hecause  it  was  cairied  out  w  ith 
all  the  lickleness  and  irre-^ularitv  c)f  Louis  W'.'s  j^overnmcnt.  It 
is  true  that  manulactiners  made  j^reat  pr()<^itss,  aiul  increased 
thiir  atuuial  products  six-lold,  iVom  the  time  of'Colhert  to  that  ot" 
Necki'i.'  Ihit  the  statutes  lu  came  more  o|)prcshi\e  e\  erv  \ear  ; 
everv  new  in\ention  and  impiox  emeiit  w  as  (.■\chided  h\  them; 
anil  alter  i  y'x;.  no  lei,dslation  could  ki'cp  pace  with  the  proi^ress 
ot  machineiN.  Manulacturei^.  therel'ore.  as  is  evervwhere  the 
case  under  such  circumstances,  no  Ioniser  adapted  themselves  to 
the  natural  wants  and  capacities  oinien,  hut  inunediatelv  took  an 
artilicial  and  aristocratic  direction.  Onrin;;  C'o|i)i'rt's  niinistrv. 
\\  liiK:  onl\  6()..|<«)  hands  were  t'mplo\ed  in  the  maiuit'actuie  ot 
wool,  no  k'ss  than  i^.^ooweie  en^a_i;ed  in  laci-makiuL,^  ;  and  a 
hundied  vears  later,  wiiile  the  manutactme  of  .so;i])  onlv  pro- 
duced iS.(xx).(Hj()  of  Irancs  a  \ear,  that  of  hair-powder  was  esti- 
mated at  not  less  than  J  j.ckxj.cmm).  The  contiast  hetween  the 
aristocratic  luxuiv  of  the  rich  atid  the  uncleaid\'  indiLjeiicc  ot" 
till'   populace  can    hardl\-   he   more  t^Iarin^ls    displavi-d. 

.c\|^''riculture  experienced  in  e\erv  wa\  the  disadx  antaLJi's  of  a 
svstem  which  crippled  communication  n\  ith  toreiLfii  countries, 
raised  the  price  ol"  laiu)in<^  implements,  and  injuriouslv  atl'ected 
the  home  trade.  In  their  eaj.;;crness  to  j)r()tect  manuiacturi's  the 
j^overiunent  had  Kained  to  look  on  the  interests  ot  agriculture  as 
of  secondarv  importance.  Thev  accustomed  themscKi's,  iikv'  the 
modern  socialists,  to  apply  the  word  people  e\clusi\el\  to  the 
luanufacturini^  classes  in  the  towns;  and  thout;h  they  sacriliced 
the  interests  of  the  latter  in  a  thousaiul  ways  to  the  pri\  ilet^cd 
monopolist,  vet  philanthropy  and  love  of  (juiet  co<')perated  in 
inducin;^  them  to  snjjplv  the  lu-cessities  of  the  poorer  aitisans,  at 
the  cost  of  the  agricultural  poj)ulation.  ^\s  supplements  to  the 
protecti\i'  and  prohihitorv  duties  in  lavor  of  maiuifacturt-s  decrees 
were  issued  toihi»ldin<j  the  exportation  of  corn  and  other  raw 
ajiricultiual  products,  liy  tl  'se  artifices  the  piice  of  the  In'cto- 
iitrc  of  wheat,  which  on  tlu  avera;^e  is  at  present  19  to  20 
francs,  was  in  1764  foiced  down  to  less  than  S  iVancs.'-  Choi- 
6cul  then  opened   the  trade,  and  the  price   rose    to    more  than  i^ 

*  Tills  was  till*  |)ri<|iiitti><ii  in  tlu'  wkhHiii  inaiiiir.u'turv. 

*  Milicr,  ill  lulli  vol.  nl'  llic  '■  Miiiiuircb  liu  PAcadciiiic  royali:  ilo  NK  iliiiiii-." 


of  ;i 


^,  ;it 

r;i\v 
■to- 


CAUSKs  or    riiK   IRKMH    RIAOILIION, 


63 


tr;iiics.  A  siinihir  icsull  followed  tliL'  s;iiiu>  iiu'Msui'f  in  177S, 
(Inriiii^  tiic  niiiiisliy  ol"  Turj^ot  ;  hut  a  ri-tmii  t<>  protection  re- 
duced the  price  ouce  more  to  \ll^  tVaiics,  until  the  ke\ohition. 
The  citv  jutisans  had  tolerahls'  cheap  hiead,  hut  nowhere  in 
the  kinj^doni  were  the  I'arniers  prosperous.  In  spite  oi'  the 
nio,-,t  violent  complaints  tVoin  all  the  pro\  inces  the  cause  ot"  the 
evil,  ami  conseiiueutlv  the  e\  il  itself,  remained  unchan!L,^e(l.  The 
j^rovernment  adheretl  to  the  conviction  that  it  was  their  imme- 
diate dut\  to  pi'ovide  lor  the  maintiiianct.'  of  the  population  ot  the 
towns.  It  seenu'd  to  them  a  mattei' ol  couise  that  the  State  should 
use  its  political  powir  lor  the  aihantane  ol'  its  luleis  and  their 
fuNorite.s.  No  one  considered  the  remoter  conse(piences  <if  such 
a  princi|)le  ;  no  one  asked  the  cpiestion  :  ■•  What  if  this  power 
should  fall  into  democratic  hands.-  " 

Let  us  ende.i\or  to  ohlain  a  i^eneral  \  iew  of  the  wi.dlh  of 
I'rance  at  this  period.  I'rom  the  impi'riection  of  olhcial  inloima- 
tiou.  the  task  is  a  tlillicult  one,  and  its  lesuhs  unciatain.  lucii 
an  appro.ximation  to  the  tiulh,  however,  will  not  he  without  in- 
terest, since,  in  t)rder  not  to  hrin;.^  forward  unmeaMin^-  lit^ures, 
we  shall  con.slantly  institute  a  comparison  with  the  new  exislinj^ 
slate  of  things. 

J  he  well-informed  Tolosan  —  the  oid\-  authorit\-  on  this  sul>- 
iect — estimates  the  total  produce  of  manuficlures  at  y^i  million 
francs;  that  of  handicraft  at  Oo  millions.  At  the  present  da\  '  the 
manufactures  of  Kastern  I'r.uice  alone  —  nv)t  reckoning  handicraft 
—  produce  2,z'^Z  millions;  the  sum  total  therefore  lias  heeii  at 
lea^t  quadrupled.  At  the  former  j>eriod  il  amounted  to  ^(j  francs 
l)er  head  of  the  whole  population  ;  at  present  wi-  might  unliesi- 
tiitinglv  place  it  at  more  than  nx)  per  iiead.  The  emancipation  of 
•he  internal  trade  siuee  i  ^'^'^  has  not  laised  the  amount  of  piop- 
ertv  pKnlnced.  hut  —  what  has  .so  ol'ten  hi'en  calleil  in  (juestion  ■ — 
Ills  lavoiahK  inlluenced  the  maimer  in  which  il  is  disli  ihutetl. 
The  dailv  wages  of  the  manufacturing  lahorers  in  17SS,  accord- 
ing to  a  rather  high  estimate,  were;  tor  men  z<)  sous.  ■A\\y\  t'oi- 
womi-ii  i^.'  'IMiev  are  now,  according  to  the  most  niimeious 
and  trustworthv  oh.scrvation,  .\z  sous  for  men,  and  zh  for  women, 
i  lie  daily  wages  t>f  the  agricultural  lahorers,  loo,  can  certainly 
umI  he  reckoned  at   tiiore  than  15  sous'  for  the  year  i  jSi^,  or  less 

'  In  1S53.     Ill  iSoi  a  tnt.il  1)1"  live  iiiilli.mN  « .1--.  ic.iilicil.     lloiUaii,  "  l.t.it  ili.  l.i  1- i.iiii  i  iii 
17S."  pi.  Soo. 

-  Iti'ltiaii  IIiimUr  i^  t'l  Ji)  siiiis. 


■if 


' 


kl'ii. 
hi. 


^i\ 


!       • 


w 


64 


si:i,i;(  rioNs. 


than  2^  '  in  ihc  present  day.  If  we  furllier  taUc  into  account  the 
\erv  consi(leral)le  increase  in  the  nuniher  of  \\(»rkin!L;  (la\s, — 
arisin;^  iVoni  the  al)olition  of  thirt\  holidavs.  —  we  .^liall  fuid  the 
animal  \va<;es  of  the  earlier  period  to  he  little  more  than  lialt 
what  tliey  now  are,  vi/..,  '^51  francs  for  the  maimfacturin^,  and 
1^7  foi'  the  a<^ricultnral.  lahorer.  a^^ainst  ()T,n  and  ^00  at  the  presnit 
(lav.       I'o   a])pieciatc   the    si^^nilicance    of   tlu-se    results   we  must 


/// 


i> 


compare  the  prices  of  |)ro\  isioirs  at  these  two  periods.  It  ap- 
pears, then,  that  before  1  7S9  bread  was  considt-rt'd  \er\  cheap  at 
three  sous  pi.'r  poui\d,  and  it  was  oidv  in  Paris  that  tliis  rate  was 
a  common  one  ;  in  the  provinces,  the  price  was  <rtnerally  hii;her. 
n  our  own  times  the  averaj^e  piice 


I 


for  tl 


le  w  hole  of  I'rance  from 


iSj(j  to  iS.jo  was  17  centimes,  while  at  Paris,  in  1S51,  it  was  14 
cents.  —  less,  therefore,  than  the  old  rate  of  t,  sous.  'This  seems 
out  of  proportion  to  the  piice  of  corn  ;  since  the  luciulitrr  ot 
wheat  in  1780  cost  iVoui  i--i,^  francs,  and  in  iS.jo  from  i^-jo. 
This  apparent  inconj^ruitv,  however,  is  accounted  tor  li\  the 
im])ro\emenl  in  th.e  methotl  of  j;;rindin;j;  and  I'akin;^,  hv  w  Inch  a 
tiiird,  or  even  a  half,  more  weij^ht  of  bread  is  now  olitained  from 
the  same  (piantitN  ol"  corn  than  in  the  foinier  period.-'  W'e  fmd, 
therefoie,  that  the  laborer  received  tor  his  wa;_;es  little  nu)ri' 
tiian  halt  tlu-  (juantit\  of  bread  which  the  nxidern  workman 
can  ol)tain  for  what  he  earns.  The  same  proportion  holds  i;ood 
in  other  kinds  of  food,  and  in  rei^ard  to  clothint;^  the  com[)arisoii 
is  still  more  unfavorable  to  the  ante-revolution. ny  j)eriod. 

We  shall    discover   the   determinate  cause  of  these   dilVerences 
when  we  come  to  consider  the  main  wealth  of  the  I'ri'iich  empire, 

—  the  produce  of  the  soil  in  the  w  idi'st  sense  of  the  word.  It 
wt)uld  can\  us  too  iwx  if  we  were  to  examine  (.vers  branch  of 
the  subject,  and  discuss  all  the  <lil]iculties  comiected  w  ith  it  :  it 
will  be  sutlicient  to  dwill  on  a  tew  of  the  principal  points  of  in- 
terest. ( )l' wheat,  the  <4reat  statVof  life,  the  soil  ol"  I'rance  pro- 
duced bit'ofc  the  Revolution  about  j(j.(kx},(X)()  luctolitrcs^  or  \(>~i 
litres  pel'  head  of  the  population;  and  in  18. jo.  7().<)(X).o<m),  or  .20.S 
litres  per  head.  At  the  lornur  period  the  numbi-r  of  cattle  wa- 
calculated  at  ^^3,cx)(),(xx)  head,  and  at  the  present  (la\  at  .)y.(K>o,o(X3  ; 
and  there  is  an  ecpial  increase  in  the  number  of  the  other  domes- 
tic animals.      The  vine\ards   formerly  yieldeil  27,ocx),cxjo  licctu- 

'  FU'fiirc    r7S,)   tin-   fffilier  {t\i\  piiuiuls)    ul"    wluiit    yit'ltltd    I'lily   iSti   |)oumls    "1"   hriail 

—  Mouitiur,   \i  July,   171^^,  supplfinciit. 

'  V'oun^,  "  A^Sl•llll)lL•u  ii.itiniKilc,"  ijtii  Jan.,  171X),  utli  Aiijj;.,  i7v>' 


I  ml 
a-l 


\  I" 


tin- 


k  U  II 


alK 


ISOIl 


•ncl"^ 


pill', 

.    It 

ich  of 

lit  :    it 

i\'  in- 


nro- 


CAISKS    OK    llll',    I  klACll     klVi  iir  I  ION. 


/// 


,1  :it 


't  y, 


fluit  th 


rti 


.CXIO.OOO, 

i-  ;it  ;in\  r;iti'  ii<>t  lower  tli:iii  it  \\;is.'  And  il  wc  t;ikc  into  loii- 
si,|(.  r;itioii  that  ;i  iiuinlur  ot"  umIiiI  a'4rii.iilliir.il  prodiicti  wrir  .it 
1 1 1. it  tiiiu'  im  known,  that  a  \  ioU-iit  I'oiitrov  1 1>\  was  canii-il  on  ahoni 
till-  \\  iioli'si  nui'iuss  ot  piit.itiKs,  that  thr  toirsts  \\  iTi'  allow  i-d  to 
run  to  wa>tt'  lai'  inon'  than  at  tiir  pii^-rnl  (la\',  w  i'  shall  ii"!  1)0 
a--lonislu'il  that  the  in-'t  stali>-t  oi  inodriii  !■  raniH'  rsliniates  the 
\e^etaMe  product  ol  the  1  riiieh  si  id  (whiili  now  exeeeds  in  \alnc 
the  siiin  ol  (>.<)(H)  iiiillion» ) ,  not  more  than  2,()(k;  iiiillioiis  at  the 
period  1  ilofe  the  Ut  \olntion.  ■  The  iin])ortaiK"e  ol  tiiis  fait  is  Mitli- 
I.  ieutl\  i\  ideiil  ;  and  we  nia\  .^ain  an  idea  of  tlii'  stale  ot  the  |]opn- 
lation     hetore     l7Si(,    li\     ienK'nil>erin;4    that    i'\en     iinw     the    tutal 

eoii>umption  oi  I I  in  I'r.iiui'  i-<  not    greater  in  pii  ipm  lii  m  t<>  tlie 

po|)iilation  than  in  l'rn--si;i,  and  niiieh  less  than  in  l^n^land.' 

RespeeiiiiLj  comnuiie.  the  third  ,i;ieat  liiaiuh  ol  nalional 
wialtii,  I  ha\e  luit  little  to  sa\.  1  am  not  aware  that  anv  stati>- 
tieal  data  exi'^t  of  tlu'  internal  IraHie  of  I'raiiee  heloie  thi'  Ki  vo- 
lution :  it  was.  no  douht,  smaller  than  at  the  pii'seiit  da\  .  in 
Lnn>e(pienie  o|  tlu'  nndtitndi'  ol  inland  (hitii's.  And  with  le'jard 
tu  till'  lorei;4n  eommeree  ol  the  iMilier  |)eriod  we  have  no  niean>> 
lit'  di\  idiii^  the  sum  tutaUwhieh  lie  Ik'Tdic  lis  inln  ihexaliieol' 
till.'  law  mateii  lis.  and  the  cost  ol  manulaeliirt'.  on  tlu-  one  hand, 
and  the  elear  inolils  ol  trade  on  the  other.  it  must  siiHiet.'  u--  to 
;^aiii  a  general  iilea  ot  tlu'  relation  hetwei'ii  llii'  two  period'^,  tVoni 
the  summarx  statement,  that  in  the  eiistomdioiisi-  p.Misters.  im- 
nii'diateU  lieloii'  the  Ke\(»lnlion.  the  annual  imports  are  stated 
at  ^^().o<)().()<K).  and  the  exports  at  ^.|(j.(kjo,(kk;  ;  while,  as  iail\  as 
iS^f).  the  formiT  amounted  to  (;():^.()(j().(x)(),  and  the  latter  to  (/a^- 
ooo.ooo  ;  and  in  iS:;~.  hoth  import-,  and  I'xpoits  had  risen  to  ;i 
'..line  of  nioie  tlian  i  .Soo.ooo.ooo.  'i'akiiiL;  .ill  in  all,  therefore, 
I'lance  under  the  (fid  nioiiarelu  was  lour  times  as  |)oor  in  manu- 
laitmes.  three  times  as  poor  in  a'^ii.  iiltine.  and  more  than  tlm-e 
tunes  as  poor  in  commerce,  as  it  is  in  the  present  day.  We  must 
hear   this    result  well    in    mind  when  we  try  to    form    a   )ii(l;j;ment 


'M 


Pill. 

IJNiiJi 


I  Mine. Ill  (Ir  ^'llmu•,  rriiin  tvniliiiipmary  snuriCN.  I  li.ivi:  rcjjlovvrd  liiiii  hctjusr  sp.ico 
il'H  .,  iiiit  ;i||ii\v  iiu'  111  nivi'  my  rcasuns  fur  lliiiikinn  ;i  imuli  mnrf  tiiirav()nil)lc  stati:  i>f  lliiiiijs 
in  1771'  lii^'lily  |iiiiti;il>li'. 

-' •' Ml  iiioiif  iviiiis  aux  Nol.ililcs,  17S1  ;  "  N'(iiiii(;'s  "Travels,"  III.  —  111;  MDrcaii, 
"  Auric  iillurt-,"    \nt. 

■  I'lii-  lali'iilali'iii  i>r  Vi)im>j  aijrfis  witli  lliis.  'rolDsan,  Dcili-Uy  d'Anicr,  l.nvdisii-r,  iiialtc 
.1111. milts  lii<.;lur.  1,  llniUaii,  ''  Ktat  ile  l.i  I' rami- in  ly"-!,,"  p.  (Si ,  imiiparcs  tlit-ir  slalciiiciits;  , 
I'lit  till'  iiiK'iTt.iiiity  "if  lliiir  laliulatiiiM!,  is  very  prn  I'pliblr. 

*  Coinniiiiiicatiiiiis  fniiii  llii;  Prussian  Statistical  ItiiiLaus,  1851. 


m 


r!t,= 
Mr 


66 


si:i,i:cii()\s. 


rcspci'lin'^  llic  lliiaiu'cs  of  the  anrii'n   rr<^/')ur.      A  l)ti<l;^ft  of  Chm) 
:lu'il  ;is  luMviU   ii|)()ii    till'   rcsi Hirers  of  tlu-  i.i)mitr\  ;it 


HllllKMlS    W  ll' 


tli:it 


)i'i  ii  >il 


l)ii(l'4i't  i)t    I  .S(  )().()()<).(  too   would    iinw  ;  ;tii(l.  •.••ii 


sccjlU'iilK  .  ;i  ill  I'lrit  <i|    |(H).()<  M).()(K)  was   t''|iii\  alriit  to  oiu'  dI'   V*"<" 
ooo.oco    in   "in   (iwii   tinu's.      Siuli  a  dill*,  it  actiialU   i\isU'(|  w  Ik!1 


I 


(•Ills 


Wl. 


iniHintc  I  tlir  tliidni 


it     !->     tlu  Till  )1\'   ta>\     to   Colll'OlS  I 


that  Ills  attnitioii  sli.mld  lu'  sti'oii^U  tmiK-d  to  tin-  i\'storation  oi 
tlif  halaiui-  l)et\\rt'n  iiKonit-  aiul  (-•si)riidituri'.  and  that  liisxain 
cii(Ua\<)is  in  this  direction  .shuuhl  shake  tiic  f'ahric  ot  the  Stale  to 
its  \ crx   t"i miulal ion. 

A  w  holi'  \()hiiiu'  wouiii  !>i'  lU'i'essarv  to  drtail  the  thlleri'iit 
schemes  ol'  relonn,  which  were  liron;j,lit  tiirwaid  hetween  ih; 
accession  ol  Louis  \\'l.  and  the  outl'ieak  ol  the  |{e\  olution. 
It  will  I)e  siiiru  ieiit  lor  our  pmpose  to  notice  tlu'  chief  points. 
which  havi-  an  important  heaiinu  on  tlie  antecedents  and  the 
actual   evi'iits   of  that    mi'^htv    luovi'iniiit. 

Louis  tlu'  .\\'l.  himseU  —  as  no  one  can  douht  who  has  ap- 
proa c I u'd  the  souici-s  oi  the  his|oi\-  ol  this  period  —  enteii'd  on  the 
task  oi"  L;o\ermiunt  with  a  heart  inll  ol'  pii't\.  philanlhrop\-.  ;md 
piihlic  spirit.  lie  was  eanusl  ;md  puri--min(led.  penetraied  1)\  a 
sense  ot'  his  ow  n  di<;nit\  and  the  ri'sj)onsil)iiities  attached  to  it  : 
and  lirmU  risoKi'd  to  close  iore\erthe  intamous  paths  in  which 
his  pii'decessor  had  walked. 

l>i;t.  imhappih  ,  his  capacitv  hoie  no  proportion  to  his  <4<iod 
will.  Ill'  was  inca])aMe  oi  ioiuiiii'^  a  decision;  his  education 
was  delicient  ;  he  was  awkward  lioth  in  pi-r-^on  and  speech,  and 
slow  of  com|)reheiision.  .\s  in-  hail  a  \v\\  limited  knowled;4e 
both  of  the  people  and  the  condition  ot'  his  empire,  the  selection 
ot"  his  ministers  was.  Itom  the  \ei\  ontsi't,  determined  l>v  accident. 
—  the  inlluiuci'  oi"  his  aunts,  his  (piei'ii.  or  the  coiiteiulinj^  com  t 
factions;  and  as  iu'  was  immiwaMe  wherexer  nioialitv  was  con- 
cerned, hut  utteiK  lu  Ipless  in  the  practical  execution  of  his  ideas, 
his  was  jusl  a  case  in  w  hich  almost  ever\lhinn  depended  on  tlu' 
aid  oi  his  nearest  ad\isers.  He  [possessed  just  suilicient  sense  ol 
justice  and  l)ene\olence  to  encoiiraL;i'  (.verx  etlort  toi^  uselul  ii- 
forms  ;   hut  lacked  entireU   that    lirnmess  of  an   enliLfhtened    jud;'- 


n?cnt  which    knows   iiow   to   i>iin'. 


ahou 


t  .1  positixe  result,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  existing-  interests.  llie  iiievitahle  conse- 
quences soon  showed  themselvi-s.  Anarcliv.  which  under  Lonis 
XV'.  had  reiiL^ned  in  the  minds  of  men,  now  broke  forth  into 
overt  ;icts.     The  sull'erings  of  the  people,  which   indiviihtals  had 


Ci 


c'Aisr.s  oi-   riir.  i-kiacii  ki.\<>i.i  i  ion. 


^'7 


;itit>n 
u<\ 

•ciion 

(lent. 

court 

con- 

11  tin' 

INC    <'l 

ll    \c- 


liilluTtn  lionu'  ill  silent  iipiitlis.  now  occiipicNl  tin-  attoiitioii  nt'tlic 


11KI^'^<•S. 


rill-  saiiu'  cliiUKf  wliicli  in  iiis  itii^n  diicitt'd  the  in;in;i;^(.'nuMit 
ot"  pulilic  hiisiiu-ss.  Ii;i(i  ^'iwii  liim,  ;is  his  lir.sl  mini.sliT,  'rmnot, 
till'  L;rr;itr-(  ii'ti )niii-i'  cf  tlif  il;i\  . 

This  '^;^rr;it  niiiii-ifi's  stroUis  l\ll  hr;i\  il\  on  liu-  i'xislin<^  svstiin 
in  i'\ci'\  tiin'ition.  AnioiiLj  his  nuMsiirrs  w  r  liml  tree'  Isadi-  in 
coin:  aiiohtion  o|  \\\c  rf>r:'i'r  in  llu'  coiiiitrx  districts;  lilicralion 
ot"  track-  tVom  the  liaiiinuls  ol'  thi-  <;uilds  :  the  erection  ot"  tiic 
'(i/.\sr  i/' fWC"/// />/(•;  '  a  iniiiiiit.'r  ot"  iiiipinvcnu-nls  and  alK'viations 
in  thi-  iiiodt.'  of'  laisiii',;  the  puMic  taxi's  ;  and  ;i  prospect  iiehl  out 
lo  all  pn^sessois  (it  jnopertv.  ol  ;i  Liradiial  incn  asin<^f  share  i!i 
l)olitical     rights:    ami    it    is    under    these    lu'ads   that    t!ie    listless 


ac[i\it\   ot    tills  liberal  statesman  ina\   lie  lusl  anaii'jed 


w 


c  iiiav 


lasiK    conci'i\i'    that    there    was    scaiceK     oiii-    ot*    the    piixile'^ed 
classes  which    did    not  consider  its  previous   existence   iinpeiilled. 

()ppositi(in  lose  in  e\ei\  iiiiartir  :  the  courtiers,  the  j)ailia- 
meiits,  the  landed  aristocracv  .  and  the  iiU'iiihers  ol"  thi' t^uilds  — 
all  threw  theiiiseh  I's  into  an  attitude  of  delence,  \\  itii  nois\  /.eal. 
i'lie  coin  .•»t  penetrated  into  the  io\al  lainilN  itself,  —  Louis's 
\()iiii!4er  lirolher.  Count  Charles  ol"  Artois.  ahiised  the  minister, 
who.  he  said,  was  underniiiiin'^  the  aristocracv,  tiie  prop  and 
raiiip;iil  of  the  throne;  and  a  cousin  of  ^le  kiii.u,  the  rich  and 
ahandoiuil  I'hilip,  l)uke  of  (JiKans.  Iie^an.  amid  the  i;'eiieral 
cxcitenii'iit,  to  pla\  tin-  deiua;40'^ui'  on  his  own  account.  riien. 
for  the  liisl  time,  a  s|iectacle  was  si'eii  in  I'aiis.  which  was  suh- 
se(|ueiitl\  ri|)eati(l  in  e\er  darker  colors, —  the  s|)eetaide  of  t!ic 
police  authorities  of  the  capital  stirring  up  the  nioh  ai^^ainst  the 
crown,  and,  on  this  occasion,  in  the  interest  of  the  pi"ivileL;e(l 
classes. 

At  liist  Louis  W'L  di'clared  that  he  and  Tui'^ol  weii'  the  onlv 
friends  of  the  ])eopli'.  and  stood  lirm  against  the  pailiamenl  of 
Paris  and  the  street  rioters;  imt  he  was  not  proof  a'^aiiist  the 
fei'ldeiiess  of  his  own  character  and  the  weariiiL;  iulhu'iice  of 
those  hv  whom  he  was  daih  surrounded.  After  an  administration 
of  nearly  ;i  year  and  a  half  'I'mj^ot  was  obh'i^ed  to  yield  to  the 
reaction  of  the  aticicn  rci^inic,  and  almost  all  his  creations  col- 
lapsed at  once.  Then  followed  a  loiii;'  [jeriod  of' experiments  and 
palliatives;  the  si:ccessors  of  Turj^ot  would  gladly  have  gone  on 


'All  in>titutinii  fur  Iciuliii^  iiioniy  for  flu-  liirtlnniiicc  of  inaiiufacturcs  and  coiiiiiicirc. 


\i 


,1    r 


1 

J 


I  ' 

bill" 

nil  II. 

hill) 


1 

'JM| 

1 

a 

1 

■ 

\  ■ 

Sis 

i      ^ 

I! 


68 


>ii  1 1  rioN's. 


ill   till-   l>n);i(l    tiiiik    (if   tr;i(Iitii)n;il   privili'i^i's   if   (lirir    incrcasiiij^ 
tiii.MU'i;il  ilill'n.  iiltii  •^>  li.iil  Kit  tlicm  ;iii\   |)«.;irr.      It  \\;is    jii>-t  ;it    this 

■M|)|)(»i1  till'    Nnitli   Aiiu  lit  nils  a;;;iiiist 


tiMU 


UkiI 


<<)||IS    1  IS()I\  C'(l    to 


Mn^l.iiul.  \\liii.li  \\v  if;i'l\  (lid  ir^aiiisl  liisnwn  will  ami  tin-  views 
1)1'  liis  miiM->tri->,  wln)  dri'ailnl  tlu'  lApi'ii^i^  of  a  '4it.1l  war.  and 
clearly  saw  lli.il  tlir  iiiiaiii  ipatioii  dI"  iiu>  t.c(|i>iiiis  wnuld  not 
wi'akc'ii  I'".iiL;laiid.  I'ml  tlu'  imdiliiii'd  l'>ii.L;iii;4  l<»i'  ln'i'dum.  and 
tlu-  li'ii'ial  poliliv.d  doctriius  uliiiii  had  tal\(.ii  lOdI  laf  and  wide 
in  the  land.  pre\ailfd  ovif  the  seiiiples  c»t"  tlu-  Ivin;^  and  his  eoun- 
sellois.       The  Mai(piis  of'  I  .alavette.  ihen  a  tall  li^htdiairi-d  youth, 


ltd 


1)1    \anit\    and    anil>itii>n.  vvlm.  mi    aeiuinit  <>!    his    un<rracehil 


nianniis.   iiad    n<i    siaeess 


at  ciiuit.    lilted    <>nl    a    ^\\\\)   at  his  own 


exijensi' 


Mid  sadrd  aeiiiss  tin 


I' 
Allantie.       A  innnlief  ol  iidlnential 


peisDiis  ened  ont  loi  veiii^eanci'  upim  l-n;4land  li n  tlu'  lunniliation 
sustained  in  the  Si'M'n  ^'l•a^s'  War  ;  in  a  word,  the  warlike  paitv 
eaiiied  tlu'if  point,  and  waf  was  dielai(.il  against  Iji^land.  The 
eoii>.e(|iienee   to  I'lanei'  was   a    rapid    spicad    of  diiiioiratie  senti- 


nu  Ills   on    the 


.nieiuan    |)attrrn. 


The    I'ollowii' 


K 


onNsi-au 


wei'e  tiiinnphaiit  ;  hi'it.-.  the\  said,  nii^ht  hr  miii  the  possihilitv 
of  a  (lenioeiiu  \  on  a  hroad  hasis,  —  the  eoiistruetion  oi'  a  .State 
on  the   loundation  of  llie   natural  rii^hts  of  man.      Anothef  eonse- 


ueiiee  ol    thewaiw.is  to   thfow  tiesh 


hnrd 


eiietiuei 


lie  innnvte^ol  hnanee  at  this  time  was  Aitkii'.  a  native 


I'Us  on   tlu- 


i)iii)iie  4.'x- 


>l  ( 


ieiu\  a. 


II 


i\  I n'4  Collie  to  I'.iiis  a^  a  poor  eli'i  k.  he  had  11  sen  nv 


his  taliiits  and  skill  in  Inisiiuss  to  the  position  of  a  rii.li  hanki'i', 
and  with  «^real  self-eomplaeeneN  had  made  his  house  the  rcuJrz- 
vo/ts  of  the  more  disliiiLjnished  memhers  otthi'  liheial  ))aily.  lU' 
Iiis  inlliienee  with  the  ixmrsr  he  |)roeured  a  eeitain  decree  of 
credit  lor  the  Stale,  and  raisi'd  loan  after  loan  to  the  amount  of 
t;o()  millions,  without  an\   increase  ot    the   ta\eM.  or  an\'  provision 


for  a    li<|uidatioii  of  the  debt  incurn.'d. 


Tl 


iiN  w  as  r\  idenllv  sacri- 


ticiiij^  the   Inlure    to  the  present,  since    the   deficit    Itec.uue    larger 
the  intere.st  ot'  the   public  debt    increased.      Necker 


every  year 


as 


Ii  i<l  the  n-al  merit  of  Itrini^iuLj  some  of  tlu'  dipartments  of  linance 
mto  better  ordi-r  ;  he  enjoyed,  for  the  time  bein^.  unbounded 
popularity,  ar.d  basked  with  (leli}^ht  in  the  universal  acknovvledti;- 
inent  that  he  was  the  <i;reatest  statesman  in  ICurope.  I'ublic  con- 
Hilcnce  was  tVeely  <^iyen  to  a  minister  who  emleavored  to  found 
Ins  administration  on  credit  alone, —  i.e.  on  the  confidence  of  man- 
kind, lie  was  looked  on  as  a  perfect  hero  when  he  introduced, 
with  good  results,  provincial  assemblies  hilo  Uerry  and  Guyenne, 


CAi  >i>  <)i'    nil;  iKi.Nt  II  ki:\«>i.i  iit>\. 


69 


;in(l  -^oni]  nftcrw  jkIs  -  iTciikiii;^  tlirfuij,'!)  ;ill  llic  li  iiditioii-;  nf  tlu' 
;iiK''K'iit  iii<'ii;ii\hv  —  iJiililislu'd  ;i  iJiliiiK'il.  luil  iml"  m  tiiii;ilrl\  \ii\ 
iiu\;ut  ;iii(l  lii^lih  lolund.  rcpnit  nii  iIk'  st:iti' nj"  tiic  rm;iiu( -, 
l)iit.  ;is  In-  iKtwIii'ii'  liiiil  llu'  ;iM'  to  llu'  root  <it'  tlu-  i'\il,  lu'  uiilv 
I'Misrd  :i  imiiilii'i'  'if  jxiwi-rt'iil  iiitt'ii'sts  li\  his  iilti'iiipts  .it  iniiov.i- 
liuii.  lull  wis   iilliiU   iin.ilili'    to  iIoM'    tin-  soiiivt.-  o|'   tiii;mvi:il  ron- 


ttlMoll. 


toil. 


•n    >;i\v  iiootlur  uu-iiis  ot    iti,-o\  I'l  \    I'lit   liini- 


l;ilion  ct'  tlif  lunl'^it  ;iii(l  iHoiiomv  in  tlu'  (■\])i'I1-m^  ot"  llu-  ic  int. 
1>\  ;i\  o\\  iir4  \\  liii  li  \\v  madi-  liiiiiM  It' l);itrliil  to  ,ill  tlii'  '_;r.iiidi'v>  of 
tlu'  ;mti.'ili;iMilu'f.  ;ind  was  diprivrd  of  his  oilier  in  M.i\  .  17.S1. 
Alli  r  two  insij^iiiliiMiit  and  imNpi'iii'MCi-d  iiiii.i->liT>  had  i\hausli'd 
thiii  '•trcui^th.  ill  ihi'  \i'ars  inimcdiatcU  t'oljowiip^.  the  ///fif/(/,rf// 
ol'  I.iih'.  ihi'  '^iltrd  luit  lVi\iiloiis  C'aloniu'.  was  iMlli-d  to  tlic  ht  hn. 
Ill'  lii';_;aii  with  thr  proposition,  that  •  hot-\t-r  wi>-hi'd  lor  (.'ii'dit 
nnist  (.iihiNatr  hi\ui\  :  and  hi-  n-m-wi'd  thr  piodi'^aiits  of  the 
loinl.  in  ihi-  st\li'o|'  l.onis  W.  Altii"  niattris  had  L;iini-  on  iti 
this  jnltiiant  roinM-  \\<v  some  M-ais  and  thi'  puldii"  dclit  had  lurii 
iuiTi-a^rd  h\  p  x)  millions,  and  lla-  taxation  1>\  t\\  i-nt\ -one  mil- 
lions, the  mill  ol  till-  coiinliA  hc'ianu'  j)  ilpalili-  al  the  l)c';4innin>^ 
ot  thr  \i'ar  I'J^J  aiitl  tlu-  latastrophr  inr\itaMr. 

IaI  lis  hiiv  i;i.st  a  <4laiii-i.'  at  thr  hnd;^rt  ot'  tin-  inin'rii  rii^/n/t\ 
thr  disoidiT  ol"  which,  was  to  l;1m'  tin'  signal  ol  roiiv  iiUion  to 
i'\ir\  (piartiT  ol  thr  ii\  ili/nl  world.  .Xltrr  NnUiT  and  C'alomu', 
till-  NotaliKs  and  the  Kivohition,  lia\  r  ipiain  llnl  ahout  its  ron- 
ti'iils  with  npial  nund.uilN  .  this  Imdml  iiow  lii-s.  in  its  most 
st'iTi't    drt.iils,    lutofi-    till-   rst's   ol'  liii;    hisioiiral    impiiriT.' 

And  llrst.  with  ri"_;ard  to  thr  national  iiuonir.  whiih.  as  is  well 
known,  aiiionntrd  to  ahoiit  ^^oo  inillioiis  IhIoH'  17><i).  iiraih  Soo 
nndiT  .Xapoli'oii,  and  thru  iiiiirasrd.  diiiin;^'  thr  |)iTiod  lu'twi-cti 
1^15  .nid  |S|S,  to  I ,:;()()  million  I'laius.  IIowi'mt  driiiiitr  tlii-sf 
li;4mi's  mas  appear,  we  ran  li\  no  iiuans  draw  a  roiu;hisi(  .11  tioiii 
thrm  as  to  '111'  rhrapnrss  of  thr  iispntixr  modi  s  ot  L;o\rinmriit 
alio\  r-nirntioiK'd.  \\  r  havr  alti'ad\  olisrr.rd.  that  in  proportion 
to  thr  nation, il  wraith,  a  taxation  ol  ^()l)  millions  hrtoir  l  ^^(j 
would  hi-  ahoiit  ripiivalrnt  to  oiir  ol"  !.:;()((  millions  at  the  pivsriit 
daw  in  thr  nrxl  plarr.  wr  must  maUi-  srvnal  additions  to  tin* 
I'oiind   Slim   of  :;o()   millions. 

Thr  inroinr  of  thr  ."^tatr  in  tlu'  \rar  1  7>i^  w.is  calciilatrd  at  ^^S 
iiiillions.  to   which  wnr    addrd    .}  1    millions    nioir,    lor    tlu'   local 


•  ll.iilly,  "  lli>.t.  tinatir.  ilu  l:i  |-"r;iii.i-,"  II.  .'jS. 


II 


,!■ 


r  V 


W 


i 


••'ill 

Mil.       I 

lie 


m 


% 


70 


si:i  KcrFovs. 


a(liuiiii>lr;itii)ii  ol'  tlu'  piov  iiui-s ;  a  sum  wlikli  was  iu\ir  paid 
into  till"  lii-asiirv ,  Imt  imim-diati'lv  i'\|)cmlr»l  in  llir  tlilliiiiil  placrs 
wlifii'  it  was  raisid.  Tlnis  we  linil  lli.it  lli«'  ii.iliitii  w  as  ln-ariiiif 
an  aiMiii.il  i>iiiiK'ii  ni'  timu  :;t)i)  tu  fioo  iiiilliniis.  At  tlu'  s.inu'  time 
tlic  C'Imiili,  wliusr  ixpi'iisi's  now  lii^mi-  in  tlu-  liml'^rl  of  tin- 
Stall'.  1  lisi'd  r^^  millions  in  tillus,  and  i<)  millions  in  otlu-r  dnis 
and  ollirin'^s.'  'I'lu'  f'ri-s,  w  hiili  si'iNiil  as  a  lomplitm-nt  to  llic 
jmliiial  salarirs,  ani'umtid  to  H)  millions;''  tlu-  sti-^niois  laisrd 
aliout  J. 500. (MM)  in  tolls  i.f  \;iiions  kinds,  ;md  ;il  liMst  \J.()()n.(»H) 
in  stam|)  dntirs.'  I  |)ass  o\  i-i  tin-  I'laitlal  ri-nts  and  ■-i'i\  i*.  is.  tlii' 
valuation  ot'  \\lii».li  is  i|iiiif  impos^ililc.  'I'iu'si'.  |"ioni  tlu'ir  vi-rv 
natmv.  cannot  hi'  taUin  into  .uroimt  in  sprakiii',;  ol'  tlir  pnlilic 
ImikIiiis.  and  mav  vt'fs  urll  In.'  si't  otl"a;4ainsi  the  nioit;4a;4i'  di.'l)ls 
of  till'  niodrrn  peasant  proprietois. 

Tlir  itrms  already  nunlioned.  Iiovsever.  in  addition  to  some  ol 
a  similar  iliaraeler.  anionntc  d  to  jSo  millions  ;  so  tli.it  the  riiiuli 
people  !iad.  at  that  period,  to  liear  a  total  annual  la\alion  ol  SSo 
millions.  It"  we  eompaie  tins  sum  with  the  national  wealth,  we 
nia\'  nidiesit;ilinL;l\  set  it  down  as  eipiivaleiit  to  an  amount  ot 
.:.|(M)  millions  at  the  present  da\  ;  it  loHows.  tlu  ref'ore.  that  iVom 
the  time  of  Louis  W.  to  that  of  XjjioK'on  III.  there  existed  hut 
one  ^overinnenl  in  l'"iani.e,  whiih  appropii.iled  to  itsilTa  still 
hir^er  propoilioii  lo  the  piil)lie  ineoiiie  than  the  aiiricn  rvi^inic 
—  and  thai  one  was  the  ''ovi'innii'iit  ol'  the  laeohins  dmiii''  the 
Uei^n  of  Ti'iior.  The  I'^mpiie,  the  Kistoiation.  and  Louis 
I'hilippe  eonteiiled  ihi'uiseK  es  w  illi  tar  smaller  sums  ;  lu're,  too, 
feudalism    liiids   its   eoniiteii).iit   amoii;4   the   soeialists. 

\\  hen  we  iiii|uire  into  the  disti  ihul  ion  of  these  taxes  anionjj; 
the  dilleieiit  elasses  ol  the  people,  we  diseover  a  J.;l.ii  iii,LJ  in- 
Cipialit\.  The  liiL;hef  ranks  were  not,  indeed,  exi'inpl  fioin  taxa- 
tioii,  hut  they  were  in  maii\  lespeels  t'avori'd.  ( )r  the  t.ixes  on 
consumption  —  which  \yere  \  alued  at  30S  millions — they  hoic, 
of  course,  a  full  share;  hut  of  the  land  and  ca|)ilation  taxes  (ij'i 
millions)  tlie\  i.UL;ht.  as  was  diseo\eri'd  dining;  the  Kevolution, 
to   have   paid,  on  a  lair  disli  ilmlion.  ^^    millions  moic  than   they 


)< 


ml 


111 
th 


le 


I  h 


du 


SU' 

trii 


actually   did.      In   th 


e   next   place,  the    mamti'iiance   ol    the   pnhlic 


'  l.iiiiis   1(1. nil',  It.  III.  (',  f,  cstiiiialo  llii'ii 
at   (0  iiiilli>>ii>. 


miiiiH  tu  iitlicr  iiutln'iilii  s,  not  .it  id,  hut 


i8(>i. 


.\i  Turiliii;;  t(i  (ithcr  istiiiiali-',  |J  iiiilliuii--.     Huitiau,  "  V.V.W  ilf  l;i  I'riiiu  r  in  lySi."    |';iii.i, 
I. 
I''i>r  till'  saki'  i)f  Iiiivitv  I  iisi'  this  toiiii   In  ili-nnti'  all  llu'  iVfs  paid  mi  cliaii^c  of  piii|>. 


cil)  ,  e'-i'.i  /<a/.v,  nioJs,  qiiiiih,  clt. 


■-.7f 

1 

i 

' 

'' 

CAl'SKS   (II      nil'    lUI.Ni  11    Ki  vm  r  I  l<t\. 


7' 


roads,  wliiili  wire  rutin-Iv  krpi  up  I'V  iiUMiis  (»f  tlio  rorxu't',  at  a 

Cn>l  (if    JO    milllMlls;    .111(1,    tllllllCI.    till'    t\|)(IIM'S    (»t    tlu>    |M(ivitU'i.ll 

militia —  aliuiil  si\  ;m(l  oiu'-riniitii  milliitns  —  iisud  inliii-lv  on 
liu-  sliouldci  s  ul'  tlir  IdWiT  i  l;is>,i's.  IT  We  l.ikc  into  ».  i.ijsjiK'ralion 
the  |()  iiiilliiiiis  ipiiiUil  ali«>\  1-,  \\  liii  li  tlu'  M'ii^iiinr^  rinivid  iVom 
till' pfaj»aiit>. —  iIk'  I':h.I  that  tin-  pnonr  ».  Ia>Ms  ot  f\  I'l  \  t<>\sii  wiTi- 
i(.'sp()iisil>K'  Iwr  till'  ta\(.'s  dl"  tluir  ri>iiiniiifu\  —  i-M-ii  \\  Irmi  llirir 
ii(.li  li-'lliiw -i  iii/iiis  is(.a|)C(I  paviiuiit  li\  the- piircliasi' oi' pi  i\  ilft;jL'(l 
diruvs;  ww^S.  Ia«.ll\.  tlu- scandalous  iinlainu'ss  in  tlii"  impusition  of 
till'  ta\i->  on  liiiiMimpticin.  towjiiih  llu'  lu'lpU-ss  miillitiidi'  was 
^u^jl•l•t(.•(l  li\  tluir  >npiiiiii>.  \\  c  shall  ca^iK  unikisijnd  the 
tiinniphant  lui\  with  wliiih.  in  i^Sij.  the  piasanls,  niuii-  cspi'- 
(.ialU,  itccist-il  till'  joNlnl  int(.'lli;4(.iK(.'  nf  tla'  utter  di^liiution  of 
tlir   s\s|i'ni    aliovi"   disLiilicd. 

(ircat  as  was  tin-  proportion  which  it  i-xactid  d'  ihi.'  national 
iiK'onu'  till-  '4n\  ii  nuu'iit  lonml  iisilt',  iu'\  (.  rtluK  s->.  in  a  siati'  ol 
r\  I'l-ini.  riMsin'4  mrd  ami  iinharia-'snu'nl.  l)iMii(l(i-  nn  th.i'  oiu' 
^idi-  and  srilishiuss  <>n  tlu-  otla'i'  staltciid  il^  tiiMsuirs  to  tin.; 
wind.  lilt.'  (.'asc  was  |lu'  saiiii'  in  tin.'  finaiKial  ailniinistrali(»n  as 
ni  that  of  justice:  no  oik'  liad  ever  trli-d  to  or^ani/i-  it  on  any 
Inland  piinciplc  of  wise  adaptation  tn  the  riid  in  \  ii'W  ;  on  the 
coiiti.iiv,  a  iiuniliiT  oi"  isdialid  jm  isdlctinii-^  —  (listin;4nislu(l  Ironi 
iiur  aiHithi'i'  accordin'_;  to  pri)\  inccs.  or  soiii>.i's  ot"  inconu'.  or  llit; 
dfstln.ition  o|  ihi.'  Iinids  in  (piistiuii — c-\isti'd  sidr  l>\  -idr,  intci- 
Icrin^'  with  each  otlui's  operations  and  d(.stro\  iii'^'  all  respoiisi- 
hiiits'.  The  amount  ot  aitears  due  the  ticasiiiA  — i'<pial  perhaps  to 
halt  (he  annual  hud^iM  —  not  e\enllu'  Ki'volutiou  has  heeii  ahli; 
to  asceitain.  and  it  could  onl\  i^et  hold  of  tlu-  piofits  of  the  laiiu- 
lis  of  the  revtauie  li\  means  ol  the  Liuillot iiie.  When  ouci' 
faiuiliaii/iil  with  delicits  the  i^oMiument  sdon  ted  into  the  stit-ain 
oi"  tloa(in;4  di  hts.  'l"he  anticip  nion  ot'  the  \v\  (.  luu'  ot'  tut  me  \  cars, 
at  a  usinions  discount  paid  to  the  collectors  theniselv  es.  tlu'  pul- 
tiiii^f  otl"  tlu-  pa\  nunt  of  del  its  w  liich  had  la  lien  due,  and  the  omis- 
sion of  expendituie  pii  sci  ili«.d  li\  law.  weic  the  cau-i.' ot  I'lpially 
I'liornious  lossis.  wtien  tiie  da\  for  liijuidation  at  last  ai  rived, 
liow  widel\  this  contusion  spread.  ma\  lu-  L;atlu'ied  fioni  the 
actual  cahh  atcoiuits  otthe  \car  17S5.  15v  tlu-  sidi'  ol' the  re.Ljular 
income  of  the  tie.isury,  of  not  (piite  ;^^7  millions,  there  is  another 
account  of  -p)^  millions  income,  and  407  millions  ixpendilme, 
consisting;-  of  items  which  belonj.^  eitiier  to  the  earlier  or  later  sears 
of  the  period    between    1781    aiul    17«'^7;   S(j    that   the    sum   total 


d 

J[M»< 

rtiiK 


,1 
4 


*    ; 


i 


PTF 


Ml  I  I    lln\S. 


mil  Miiit^  li>  lie. II  l\    S  V  I  inillic  nis 


W 


\\  li.it   .1   liilil    \\  ;is  (ipiMicil 


to    •'prriil.ili  I  s  ,111,1  [\\{-  |i  i\  (1  s  c  .1  I  ilnmlii  ,  ,in.  1    I'  i  \\  li.il   .i  sl.ilr  "-lu  li 


pi  '  'v(l'( 


li!i'_;s    li.id    iCiliK  III     I  lie    I 


111  ivpi  I  i(  \    1 1|    ,111    tinpii  1'.   w  I  iirli    ,1 


lllliiihi'tl   \  r;il  s  CM  lici  ,   .III.  I   l\\  I  ,il  \     \  cii  ->    l,ilfi  .  (Ih  l.ilc.  1   lis   w  ,11    li 
nil  i|>l'   .is   .1    l.iw  . 
Tlif  l.i»t   liMdiif    111    llils    Si. ill'  I'll -111 'iii\    wliiv  li    ii\ii|s    III  II'-  il' 


I 


II  .u  It  I    is    I  lie  Uiiiil  1 1|  lApinililiii  r  ill  w  liiili  I  lir-c  1 1  cism 


IS.     I    I  l| 


|i  V  icil  with  SI «  n,  111  li  ilillh  nil  \  .  w  ci  c  iiiipli  i\  cil.  i  In-  <  \  |n  uses  i.>t 
llu-  11  Mil  I  \\  lU'  si.iicl  ill  I  111  1  illii  l:il  1  II'  I'tI  ,iI  1  liii  t\  -till  (t  I  iT  I  liii  I  \  - 
five  inilliotis,  l<iit  tlir\  wi  ic  in  ic.ililv  Imlx  inillinns,  wlii^  h  iliil  imi 
ituiiiili'  till'  iii\.il  linnliii'.^  (  \|Hilit  imis  .luij  jiiiiiiir\s.  tlir  s;i|,iiiis 
()|  till'  uu'.il  I'lliiiis  111    |iu'  iniiit.  '1    till'    iii.iiiili-n,iiu  r   i  it    llir  rnv.il 


•|-| 


ir    w  ,11    ntluc  —  tilt 


-t    111    w  liii  li    Nil  k 


ri     s|,ii,'s    .11 


iiiiutv  -iinii'  iimII'i  His   ,111 


■  I    ( 


jiiinir     ,ll     I  I   I    llllllliiils      -  |riTI\ri|    I   ;i 


iiiilliiiii-.  til   wliii'li  i.itliiT  iiiiiif    til. Ill    I  III  1 1\ -iiiiif    iiiillii.iis  wtiil   ti 
till'    .iiliiiinisp  .It  imi,  tiiit\-|i>iir    inijliiins   tm    (In-    |i 


i\     ;iiiil    1 1  iiiiniis 


Siiii.it  ill    tlif  tiiiiiiis.  .111(1  liirl\-si\   iiiiIliDiis    liH     tin-    siiniis  III    tilt 
(illivt  Is. 

I'.i'Iiiih  itiiiii\til  liiini  .ill  iiiiiiistiii.il  i;iK  iil.it  ii  111  wtif  llif 
nii'iuN  iHiliis  111  ilif  kiii'_;  Iniiisill,  ••  till  pn'siiits,  iir.,  to  I'liint- 
itts,  |,i  thf  minisiii  nl  lin.iiui'  :iiiil  iiKi'^i.st  i  ;ilfs  ;  i  cj  i;i\  iiu'iit  nl 
fii'iimi  111. Ills  :    inU'iist  ;inil    tlisiiuint    to    llif    tii;isni\    ulllii.ils;    ic 


niissiiin    <i|     lilt. nil    prisun.il 


t.iM-s,    mill    iiiit'fns(in    isi 


iinsfs    111 


l'\ll\       Isllltl 


Ills     I'l.lsN     lit      I'NpiIliIlt  111  I',     W  lliill       IS     Well       ill. II 


;n.it.'ii/i'il  li\  till'  all'  i\  I 


liii'' .  ,11111  iiiiitiii  in  I  7^^  111  I  ;<>  111  ill  II  111 


111  titluT  Viiiis  thf  sniii  was  latlu-f  sm  ilKi  ;  Imt  \s\'  iiku  laiil\ 
iissiiuu'  tli.it  thf  aiinii.'.l  axfi.M^f  w.is  nmrf  lli.in  loii  iiiillii  uis.' 
Aiiil  wnijsi  \\  I'  ilnis  sff  iinthhi'^'  Imt  .ihiiiiilaiu  f  and  supf  i  llnitv 
;iiniiii'4  t!if  hi'.^hfst  fl.issfs  nl'  s.ifiiU,  il;i'  In  i.  h^is  .nnl  in, ids  .in 
(iiil\  SI  I  diiwii  at  Imir  inilliniis;  thf  pnlilii.'  luiildinjs  at  si.uffK 
twii  iiiilUiHis.  and  l!if  SI  liiitilii.'  instiliitimis  at  latlur  iinuf  than 
dill'  iniHiiHi  ;  liir\\hii.h  iihifits  thf  hiidm't  ot  iS^jaiid  thf  Inl 
InwiiiL;  \f.irs  i^r.intfd  ;,t)  millii  uis  I  Thf  In  ispitaU  ;iiid  li  iiiiidlin'_; 
lust  il  iilii  Ills   rfffi\fil    si\    inilliniis    tiinii    thf   St.itf.    si  v    Irnii!    the 


■liiii  fh.  .ititj  had  .1  II  \ 


■II I  If  111    t  w  fill  \  -t.  Mil   luillii  His   ot    till  ir  own 


whilf  t:if  htiifxiilfiit  mst  iintioiis  ot  inodiTii  liaiuf  (I'^.i-)  h.id 
;iii  aniiii.il  siiiii  i,t'  i  1 1)  niillii>ns  at  thi'ir  ilisposal.  In  shm  (,  w  hat- 
c'Xfi'  poitiiiii  ol'  tin   tiiu'incial  atl'airs  ot"  this  Iciulal  stalf  w  i'  iiiM-sti- 


■  \Vf  .inin'  lit  tlii'<  ri.->iilt  iVi'iii  llif  ili  l>.iti-s  nt'  tlif  "  Asst-itililrf  t'nii^lilii.iiiif  "  ^iii  .\|iiil 
171111  I'll  till  pell' ["lis,  llu-  oii/i>miiiiiii-s  ,1  lOiiifl  iHt,  .111(1  llic  iivrt  luiii'r.  Lmit'^  lll.iii. 
j;iM>  .1  luaiil'ir  cT  il(.t.ui.-  liiiiii  Ukm-  in   H.  I\  .,  cli.  5. 


(    \l  nI  ^>    (  >!■     I  III'    I  kl  N(   11     U\  \  I  "ll    III  '\. 


73 


'_;.ilc.  \\c  .iiii\i-  .il  llic  -:mic  ic-iill.  .iml  liiiil  tlic  |)(m|iIc  s.'|  i.ir.ilcil 
inti  I  I  w  1  p  •■  1 1  ,i|  I  l.isscs,  I  iiu-  I  >|  \\  III!  Il  \\  ;is  (III  it  hcil  III  I  he  i  i  ist  (i| 
till'    kIIht. 

I'liil  .is  cxcix  'sill  II  (|i  .liiiiii'^  (i|  tlic  wivilll)  III  .1  ii.ili'iii  IxMts 
williiii  il^(  Il  ilic  '.'riiiis  'i|  iiiiii.  In  ijisiii'.;  ii|).  on  llic  niic  li.iiid. 
the    '•iiiiiii"-    111    iiu'i'iiii.  ,iiiil     iin  I  ci'-iii" ,  cjii  the  (illici.   llic  ji.i    sinii 

\i'\    r\tr,i\  :i".iiui-.   llii \rliiiiiriil     liuiiid   il^(  ll    :il    (lie  ciiil    i>l    I  ^^6 

ill  till-  l<  ill'  'W  ill;;  1  (  nil  lit  n  III  :  I  lie  ifMil.ii  iiiiiiii.il  iiii  •  mir  w  .is  •  jy 
iiiiiliiiiis.       'Ilu      iiiiiii.il  t\i)iiiiiiliiri'.  ;u  I  iiiijiii','   In  llic  lic:isiii\    ;u- 


i  >i|ilils,  aim  Mill 


Icil    |. 


11)  iililliiois.        Ill   .nl  lihiiii   III  this  lliiic   wcic 


iiiillii  Ills  I'll    I  ici 


isil  Ills,     ,1111  I 


lii  Ills    I  it    111  ''ciil    ai  ic.ii  s    l!  Mill 


111  iiici    \  c.ii  s  ;  .iml.   1.1-  ll\  .   Ill  llic  \  cii    1 


St.   Il 


/     / 


iclc  w  :is  a   ji  IS-,  I  .|   _•  I 


iiiiiliiiiis  liiiiii  llic  cis^.iliiiii  III  ,1  l.i\.  which  li.nl  iniK  hccii  iiii- 
I 'I  ISC  1 1  II  i|  .1  pel  il  II I  ciiiliii'4  \\  il  11  I  h.il  \  c.ii  .  llic  (Illicit,  I  he  I  ill  lie, 
aiiiiiiliilci  I    I'l    1 1  )S    111  illn  His.       I    11  111   this  liiiie  the  ■  ■' i\  ci  I  iinciit    Ilk! 


Iieipcil     lis,  11    |i\     all    the    .aililiccs.   Imlh    li.id  .in 


I  I    '  'I  II  II  1 


III    a  cicilit 


s|i,ii!ici|  111  the  \(  i\  ulii'iist  ami  m.w  iilti  il\  c\liaii-lci|.  An  in 
crc.isc  III  ihc  l.ivcs  w.i-,  mil  |i.  he  iliiiii'_;!il  nl.  nn  .uiiiiint  nl  llu 
ciKil  nil  Ills  hill  lens  li\  which  the  iialiuii  was  alie,iil\  i  rushed 
I    iidci     line    cii  I  iniislaiiccs    C'alnnne.    with     ■_'(  iii.il    lii\iilit\.    ic' 


III  1  ed    111    I  he    sci  imis    and    n 


iiiiic      n.i 


lis    (i|     Tiiiijiit. 


lie    h.id     llithcltn   li\id    mi    the    l.iVnl     i  il     I    le     l  )l  i  \  i  !(■ 'ci  I    il.issis 


he    iiiiW    laiilciv 


md.  I 


\    s.u  I  ilu  inv,    t  lieiii .  Il  I    i  clic\  c  the  i  ■  iiiiini  ni- 


\\  ca 


Ith.       II. 


iip.'i  .it  iilaled  the  .'~>lale  nil   li.i\iii.;   within   It   s,,  maiiv 


;_;ie.it    .iIhisis    Ii\    ihi'  i  eiiio\  al  t  it'  which    IK'W    sum  ci's  ol    |i!.is|Hrity 


niiLdit 


ic  1 1|  unci  I 


ihc    ii|  i|  II  isit  il  111    wliiili     Tni'^iit    had     iiict    with    w  a  ■«    nl     cmnsir 
diicctcd.    with    lediiiil'lcd    liMV,    a'_;aiiist    ('.ilniinc. 

.\     *liisel\     tinwdcd     thinii',;     i  il      |  )t  i\  i  Ic'^cs     lose    t  ii  nn  ;ll  iii  n  is]  y 

iinliilitv.  the  |)i  1 1\  inci.il  cstites,  the 
Hi. 


,i''ain-.l    Ills  pl.iii- 


t.i\ 


ilectnis.  il 


II'   cmiils   III    i.iw  .  tlic    iiniicc   (illiccis,  the  luinu  il- 


ns   1)1    the    innniiNiit 


and    the    heads    ut'  the    '.fiiilds.   Innk    ii]»    the 


iiiilcsl    a''.iiiisl     the     will    111     the    kiiv'     and    liis    inmisti' 


III! 


llic  (It  \  c|i  ipinciit  III  n.iidcin  ideas  h.id  iii.ide  such  pn  rj.)  c^s  that 
llic  |). lilies  I'lMinicUd  witli  one  aiintlu'i  Im  the  pnwei  ut  piiMic 
iipinicii.  The  ininistrs  its.  ||"  eiiKiiuip.iti'd  the  picss.  innrdtrli) 
(•spii>c  llie  ad\i)iatc>  nl  tile  nld  s\  s|(.'in  to  the  ii.itiiiiiai  cnnlciiipt. 
The  \iuin.:  iinMes  of"  the  cniirt  aii<l  in  ihe  prii\iiues  aiiiud  the 
iiinli  (»r  I'.ivis  and  the  peasants  (if  Aii\  i'i;4iu'  Multilist  the  niiii- 
isteis,  and  instigated  tin  in  in  vinlent  i'\ei'ssi-s.  An  asstaiiMv  nt 
ai  istiK  lalii'  iiwt.iMcs,  In  \\  lioiii  C'aloinie  siilunitted    his  sclieMies   of" 


I'liK 


i 

74 

SKI.KCIh'NS. 

n  r<>nii,  rttnsfd  lln-ii-  ; 

sstnt.  (.l.iiiiiid   till'   li'^lit   111'  ins])fitiii'4  imd 

siipi'i  iiitiri(liii'4  i'\  n  \   I 

lipjl  tiiuiit  1)1    llir  puMii'  ^rr\  i*.'!,'.  ;iiiil  iiiiird 

li\    di'il.ii  in'4.   lli;it    :is 

llicv     were    iioiiiiiurs    nt    ihc    kiii'^.    ;iiid    IK^I 

ifpii-'fiitiiliN  I' •   III    till' 

iKitiiiii.  llu'\    Wrii'    ihM    i.  iiiii|)('U'iit    1>)    iumKc 

lU'W  "41. mis.      Imnii-'di 

ili'lv   mI'ui'  llu  ir  dismiss, d    tin.    |);ii  liiimriit  nl' 

l';iri.s,  \\  liii  li.  iu\l  to  1 

111'  miiiisti  \  .  \\  .1-,  ilu'  lii'^lu  s|  ;mlliiirit\-  in  1  lie 

St;itr.  I'liiii^lit    t'oiw.n 

d,  js  :i  piisilivi'   dciii.md,   wii.il    tlu'    ii<)l;il>Ks 

li;i(l  oiiK   iif^.itiv  rl\   Ml 

Um'sli'd.      Ill  ;i   |iiim;d   dri  ire  llirv   diiiKllldid 

ill. It    ;m    A'-M'iiiMy    of 

tlir    Sl.iUs-'4ciu-r;il    sjiniild    1 H'    i;dliil.--;m 

Asst'inltK    w  liii  !i  till'  1 

iiDiiaii  li\    li.id  disjHiiscd  wiili  till    -•<>(}  \i:ir:i. 

'I'lii'  miiiistr\  nt  liist  riiii\i(l  lliis  j)r(i|)(is;d  wiui  '^ha{  distaxnr; 
Itul  as  llu-  want  ol  mmiiN  l;Ii  \\  mmi'  and  niou'  iif^i  ill.  t!ii'  aliiir- 
iii;'  liii|)(.-  aiiisr  ill  tlii'ii  minds  nj  lindiii^  in  lIu'  ."^l.iU --^ciui  al. 
wliiili  w.is  I  liiilK'  iDinpiisid  III  liiir;4lii'i  s.  a  pnwciliil  suppml 
against  llir  pri\  iUi^cd  i'lis>,(.>>,  \\  r  sli.di  in  \  ci  niidi  island  liic 
t'sti  .mrdinarv  siu  i  rss  ol  tlir  liisi  n\  i.lnt  idii.ii  \  iiu  a  »  nuiils.  niilfss 
we  luar  ill  mind  \\  lial  .1  hnn'i'  sliaii'  in  llw  •4w\  riiiiiunl  nf  the 
ciinnliN  w  ,is  pi  issrssi'd  li\  llir  hi_;lirr  uiiKis  ,md  iIk-  11  iipm  atiiiiis. 
and  liiiw   tlir\   niiw   mnliialK   vi.n'_;li(  c  av  li  iitlun's  disi  1  lu  t  imi. 

C'aliiiinr  w.is  iinl  inii'^  aMc  In  make  licad  ai^.iiiist  llii^  imisv 
(ippi.sitii  HI.  riu'  lasl  III  tlu'  main  Mnv.s  \\  Idi  h  laiistd  Ids  lall 
w  as  (It  all  li\  the  i|iii  I'll,  w  Ihhii  lir  alli  1  \\  ,11  ds  pri  sii  iiti'd  \\  illi  iii- 
i-Nliii'^msliai  ill  iialK-il.  llis  siu  a  issor.  Iliiuiiu.  allrr  a  vinUnl 
lamiisl  Willi  lln-  pai  li.inuails.  ii'simu'd  liis  idllti'.  v\  lu  n  llir  .luivu- 
c.itii'ii  ■!  llir  ."^lalt  s-._.iiu  lal  li.id  aliiadv  luaii  (kuimiiiiu  mi.  and 
till'  nali'iiial  I  Miiki  iipU'\  \iilnali\  pr<>i  laiiiK  d.  I.unis  had  1  ('i.'i  mi  sc 
Id  .\rrk«'i'  a'^aiii.  \s  In  1  iralU  nlii  \  (.d  the  liraiu  iai  1  nil  MiLissnH'iil 
tnr  llu  nu  1:  :u  111 ,  and.  I  I'l  I  i.;ni/iim  1 1 11'  iul  i'ssii\  ,  ,|'  a  lilni  ,d  piilii.'\  . 
liNi'd  I  III'  nil  I  liii'4  III'  llir  Slali's-^i  m  r.d  U,v  dir  Jpli  dT  A  pi  il.  1  ^Ni). 
Till'  tVrnu'iil  whiili.  uwin^  In  llir  pna.i'din'4  dis|)iiu.s.  had  Inr  tlir 
liisl  liiiu-  siiui  till-  rili^iiiiis  w.m.s  priirli.itid  llu-  mass  ut  th  rn- 
plo,  iiUTi'.isid  rinin  hiiui'  111  hiiin.  'I'lu'  a^ilalimi  was  piiiuipallv 
i.iiisid  l'\  till'  'pu'slK  HI.  wlullu'i  llir  ."^laU's-^i'iu  1  .il  slmnld  niii  1 
ii"^  lirtmi'  ill  lliii'i-  srpai.ili'  ihamliiis,  ni  Inrm  a  siii'^li  assi'iiildv. 
ill  wliiili  till'  //i/s  t/ii/  sjionld  liavi'  .1  dmilik  minihri  nl  \(ilrs. 
( )n  this  |)iiint  I  hi'  hitlu'i  In  a  11  in  1  oppnsiiii  m  paitii's  dilUii'd.  -  tin 
aiistm  lals  ad\  Di'alinn  '1'^'  srpai  .it  ii  m.  tlu'  liluials  tli.'  iiiiioii  of  tlir 
I  liii-r  I  si.iii's,  Ni'v  ki  r.  \\  illi  411.11  want  nltail.  lii'tr.i\rd  liisnwu 
vii'Ws   1>\    assi«4iiin4   tlu-   dmiliir  immlni  nl    \'ilrs   In  tin-  //crs  I'/ii/ 

Wllill'   111'    illdllii  d    till'     4n\iinilUlll      In   nlisilM'   ail    nlisliiiall'   sill'lUf 

on  till'  mail)  |)(iiiit    in  (|nrsii(tii.        Tin.'    pnhlii    dchatt-s  nil    lliiy>  suh- 


.llHl 


llil  I 


CM  Sl>    (M      I  111      I  Kl  \(  II    Kl,\  1  il  [■  lio.V. 


75 


ji  ^  I  \\(i\'  ;ill    tl'.r    miirc  xinKiit    in    (.'(iiist(|i!(nir   ol    this    irtivcm 


ill   I  »ri'l;i^;iif  it  taiiic  to  all  upvn  ci\il  s\  .a   lii.-l 


w 


LA'ii  lliL'  iioUility 


.iiiii  Ihr  Inn  •4luT>i. 

Tlir  lailiial  ilciiU'iits  in  I'laiuc  saw  that  llu'ii'  liiiu'  loi  at  lion 
wasii'iiu';  and  tlu'  ^^iral  tUanuss  oj"  pi  (i\  isidiis  w  hii  h  pi  i'\  aili'tl 
ilhiiii'^  thi'  w  iiili'f  nmnllis  |)hu(.'<l  a  larL;i'  niiniKri  <>{  dispi-ialc 
nun  at  llu'  disposal  <il"  i'Vi'i\  1 1  Mispiralof.  In  I'aiis  thi-  n-\<>|ii- 
li'iiiaiv  dfnia'4ii>_;iii's  t^athi-u-d  nnind  thi'  a'^nils  i.t'  thr  I)iiki-  ol" 
()iliaiis.  and  at  tlu'  I'lid  m|  April  liird  tluii  stnn^tli  in  a  saii'^ui- 
ii.irv  s|  I  t-fi  I  ic  it.  w  liii  li  w  as  piutrssi'dK  dii  r<  ti'd  a 'gainst  tin-  iisin  inus 
avarii'i'  nl  a  rich  nianiiLut  iiin,  luit  nalK  liad  iin  nthii  i)l)j(k.'t 
tliaii  ti>  int  iiiiid.lti'  tin.'  iiindrl  atr  palt\.  lulnir  tlii.'  i  iiipi-iidi  ii.',  tlii - 
tiiMi  (i|  thr  Slatcs-i^cncral.'  In  olhci  iispi\|s  rstnnal  (piiit  still 
pU'vailnl  in  thr  pi  i '\  iiui's  ;  hut  tin-  tivriish  a'_;ilal  n  in  ol'  inin's 
minds  iiunMsid  with  r\ii\  da\  ;  and  in  this  si.itc  ol  tliiii'^s 
till-  ilcili'iiis  l.\-  alniost  iini\iis;d  siillia'^c  lu'vaii  to  hr  lirlil. 
l,\ii\  I  K\  tor;d  folli'!4i'  was  to  intrust  its  instiihtions  ami  lom- 
pl.dnts  to  its  di|>iitii-s  avionhn'4  to  nudia  \ai  iii-tinii.  In  i-\iTy 
di-tiiit,  tlifirloii-.  a  loii'4  list  ot  aluisrs  was  diawn  np  and  i-\- 
.iiniiu'd  am!  liroii.;lit  hoiiu'  to  tlii'  minds  ot  dii'  piopU-  at  lai'^r  \>\ 
inraiis  ol  disiiissi.  Ml.  A  niodi'in  hisiniian  has  insiK  ol.,srr\  t'll 
III  il  tlusf  I  oiiiplaiiits  (In  m  it  K  a\i'  a  sin-lr  pailit  Ic  ol  thr  aurifH 
iii^inu-  iiiitoiu  hid  ;  that  i.\  i-i  \  thiip,;  was  U'intrd  hv  tin-  iistlivss 
dtsiii-  ol  innovation,  and  that.  iinroitiniahU  .  luitlui  tlu'  possi- 
hihl\  nor  tin'  imiho  I  ot  iiii  lodiu  iiiu;  ri'toniis  is  aii\whrii'  pointi-d 
'lilt.  Urvohilioii  -iiiii\risal  and  radical  1 1\  oliil  ioii  spiaks  in 
r\ri\  liiif  ol  tlu  sc  doi  iiiiiiiits.  Tlii'ir  was  Imt  oiir  thon^hl 
!hioiiL;li  thr  whole  ol  I'l.iiur.  that  thiiu  i  loi  w  aid  a  iirw  cia  was 
tu  idnwiu'iu  (■  loi  ihr  |)iopK-  and  tiu'  rinpirr.  and  that  tin.-  \soik 
hi',;iiii    iiiiist    lir    1 1  iiiiplrli-d    in    s|)iti-    o|    i\(i\    opp  )>il  iuii . 

Whilst  tlu-  millions  in  cwrs  jiail  of  the  ronnti\  wm  thus 
iinaiu  ipatiii'.;  tluinsch  is  Imm  thr  hoiuU  o|  tiadiMoiial  law  ■  nn- 
^rilaiii    alioiil    tlu'ii'    Intm.  .  Iml   lirm  in  ihrii    iisolntion  to  piorrcd 

till'  ;4o\  ri  iiniriit  was  dail\  sinkiir^  moll-  and  iiioir  into  iiili-i" 
111  IpKssiii'ss.  It  had  iiidnil  a  jufsi  ni  imi  nt  o|  tlu-  daii'_;i.i  s  w  hii  li 
Would  aii<niipaii\  tlu'  Imakiii^  out  ol  thr  iirw  i|)(h1i.  lait  its 
ilrstitntioii  was  so  loiiipliti-  that  it  cavils  lor..:rd  toi  flu-  lom- 
iiHiH'riiu-nt  of  thr  riisis.  Moiux  .  oiu-  ol  (hr  ;^Mral  lartoi^  oi 
inatv'iial  powrr,  was    not    |o   hr    toiiiid  in  ils  rollris  ;  aiulrvt'ii  tlu; 

'  This  li.is  Ihiii  1  li'iiily  .iml  oimiscly  mIu'Wii  i>v  t'rukir  in  liU  "  Ki^;iys  dh  llu;  l-rfiirli 
l!<M>lutl'     ,"  p.  51). 


ill 


'■      i 


t 


m 


I 


.-■il 


■jf 


,  14 

t  + 


t 


76 


SKI.r.l   IIONS. 


otIuT.  the   ;inii\.  \v;i>   .ilrcMiK    MlliTlcd   l'\   llu-   '^ciuT;!!    |iiiuh"^s  ol 


(llSSoltll  loll. 


'Iii 


s   is   |)i'i1ki])s   ilic    niii'-l    ini|>iiii,mi    lir  uiiistinui- 


\\\ 


\\\    n  -pitl     to    the    >.iili-ri|iiiiit     C'liiisr    nt     lln'     I'lciuli     Ki'\ 


Olll' 


(iiiii.   ;ni(l    \\-'   (lilli'ii'iii'i-   tinm    .ill    tlidsc   wliirli    li.i\i-    siiui'    l;tl<iii 


1)1, Uf 


III 


1 


III  1  "in- 


111'     UMsiill     IS     s 


iMi|)li'    iMi()ii'4li  :     tlic    I'lc'iuli 


jintu    \v;i-.    Ill    till'    in:iiii,    <>i  l;;iiii/ciI    ;u  ki  ikIim;^    |i>   thr  sanir    priii 
cipirs    ;is    till-  other  (l(|i:irliiU'iits  lit    I  lie  Sl;iti\  ;iii(l.    likrtliilil.   !i,h 


urn  1  lioroii'_;lil\    iinliiU'^i'il  li\    the  I'oiili'sts  lutw  nil  thr  i  row  u  .m. 


(he    rciiil;il    oiiliTs.  loU'j;    liclorc    thr    IniMkiiiL;'   "Ut    o|'  thi'  |i!rvoh 


tlotl. 


U'    nol>ilit\    ;i!oiu'  wi-ir   I'li'^il 


lo)-   i.omiui><sii)iis   in   th 


jlinu  ;    ;iii(l  though  >iiiL;lr  I'Mi'ptionN   to  this    rule    ic  ;ill\   <u\iinr 
Vt't  thi-  moiiopolv   was  ;u'tiiall\   liinilc 


li\    a  law   o|     I  -S I   ii .  iiolih'- 


nu'M    ol     lour    (lisfiiits. 


1 


w  rill  \  -SiN  111     ii"4iiii(iits 


oti'^rd     t' 


loici'^ii    ol    iialixi'   'ji  aiiilri's.  .nid  in  thisr  tlu-  owner  o|    laeh    it'yi- 
ineiil    appoinleil    ihi'  loldiiel.  tioiu  a   list  diawii  i;p  !i\    the  ininisti  i 
III  war  ;   and  {\\r  eoloiu-1  appointed    the    othi'i   ollieeis.       The  iiilhi- 
I'lii  (•    ol     thi     Uin;4"s    '^o\  I'lnmeiit ,    thenroii'.    in    the    seleition    ,,| 
ollieei-.  was   liniiled   to  thi'  eoniposiiion  ol    the   list    of  eandidati- 
for    the    single    oll'ue   ol    I'olonel.       In    the    other    dlxisioiis    o|    ll,i 
:iiin\  .   indeed,  the  hi'_;liest   raiilv  was  in  the  '^ill  o|    the   Isiii^  aloU' 
lull  ol    the  other  loinniissions  oiil\    onediall  weii-  i>es|(.wed  \<\    lii. 
kiii'^'.  and   the   oilier  halt    \>\   the  colonel.      The   olliicr,  inoieo\ei 
U'leiveil    his   loiumissioii,   alter   '4i\iii;4    proofs    of    his    litiuss,   o-, 
pavment    of  a    smn   ol"  nione\  ;    it    was   a    puieh.i-e    loi    lite.  as.  ii 
tllc  case  ot"  the  eoiilts   ol'  law.   it  \\as  a  purchase   ol    an    heiedl!ai\ 
rij4;lit.        Till'    diit\    ot'    niu  omlii  ional    oliedieiue    was    not     indii 
ahruj^ilteil  liv  this  sxstein  :    iuil    it   was    ine\  il.iMe.  esp>i  i.il|\    tin  l< 
il    We.ik    l:o\  einnielil ,    lli.it    the    coi'ps    ot    oHicel  s  slioiil  I   tee!   i|s(|' 
what  it  icillv  was.  a  part    ol    that    Ljrt'at   aiis|ocr.u\   which  sli.iii  i 
N\ilh    the    Kiii;4   die    Mllii.;;'    powi'i    of  I'rance    iiie\erv   departnu 'i' 
ol'  piililii'    life.      Tlu"   contest    lielwii'ii    this    iioliilil\    and    the    iniu 
isti\.  li\   wliiili    the   last  \ears   ot'  the   nmicii   ii'^ini,'  were   lilK'! 
ninst.  iheieloie.  have   had  a  dee|)    ellect    upon    the    .iin,\.      It    h 
(pieiilK    occnrri'il    tint    the    ollieeis,    like    the    jnd'^es.    with    tin 
colonels   at    their   head,  urused  ohedii-nce.      And    as   in   the    ini 
districts  ihe  opposition  of"  tht'  aiistocrac\   was  followed   h\  e\i  ii 
mint    ainon'4   the    pe.is.ints.  and   the    opposilimi  of  the    town-,   I 
f\citenunl   anion;^  tlie  artis.ms.   so,  in  du'  c;»sf  t4   tlu'  ariiix  ,  ! 
popular  niovement  lound  ils  w.i\    into   the    minds  ot    the   s.iIiIki- 
iind  operated  side  h\    side  with  the  cl.iss  ii'sist.iiu  i    of  the  otlii  i  • 
'JMir    common    soldiers    had    felt     the    oppiessioii    ol"  the    iiih. 


Il     tlu 


.ii 


(•\i>i->  ()|.  nil    ikiNi  II   kiV(»M  rif>\. 


n 


r,L^inh\  pii  li.i  j)-.  iiioii  ilifpU  tli;iii  till-  pf,i^;iiits  tlii'iusiK  i>,  ;  fni 
\\w\  \M'ir  '-l:ir\iii'4  oil  a  |):i\  of  ten  muis,  wliil-t  I'timllfss  smiis 
well-  tiiipl"\r(|  ill  liili  iiiil' i\\  iiu  iil>  I'lti  l.iyi  L'riu  I  .iK.  Tlu'V 
siill'iiril  all  till'  iii'-i  ilfiu  (•  (it  llu'  iiii|iilit\-  lowaiiK  tlic  /(///(///A-, 
iiuiiitli  Till  l'\  llu-  wii'^lil  (il  a  >i'\iK'  and  i>ltcii  I'liital  iIim  i|i|iiu"  ; 
I  IK  I.  liUr  tluii  tilli  i\s  -I  it  i/iiiv.  tliiv  luokial  jui  \var<l  lu  tin-  in*  i  liiH^ 
.1  till'  Statrs-'_;i  iK'i  al  as  tin.'  signal  c>t'  lilu-rati'>ii  I'lom  intolci  aMf 
-la\n\.  rill-  nimiUii  nt  i»'u;iiiu  iit'>  I'li  \sliiili  tlir  ^^c  >\  iMiiiiu  lit 
I'liilil  mkiHi  was  i\ti  ciiuU  --mall.  I  In-  haiuls  ol  ill -.  i|iiiiu' 
\\rn'  |cni--ciU(|  ill  i\  n  \  laiik;  llu  niruiis  invri'^licil  a'^aiiist  flu; 
(lispcitisiii  <>l  tlu'  iniiii-^lci-,.  and  llir  suldu-is  pi  c  iiiii->i-d  imr  aiiolhc!' 
ii>  do  i!(>tluii_Lr  ;iL;aiiis|  iln-  pi'Dplc. 

Tlu-  mikIi'III  p.'lilN  .  llu'iili  pir,  was  di  -tinsnl  '  x  its  nwu  iiiliiiial 
ilisinrd  and  (lissnliitJDii,  In  Inn-  a  siii'^lr  1 1\  >  iluti<iiiar\  wnid  hatl 
inTii  ultiifd.  I'lir  '^n\  I  Tiiiiiiiit  was  disiiiiitr  nt  iii<>iii\  ,\\v\  tiiiiips 
til  ditriid  its  piisitii>ii  ;  and  tin.'  tiiiilal  st-i^nii  ii  s,  tlimi'^li  tlicv  liad 
iiDpi  utaiit  indisiiliial  ri'.;lils.  had  im  "^ini'ial  (>r;;ani/al  ii  >ii  wliiili 
u)iild  I  iialiji-  thrill  t(p  npLui  tin.'  '^i  i\  ii  iinitiit.  As  suun  as  pnhlic 
iipinion  \>inih.  i^iiidcd  h\  ladiial  tlunrii's.  (.'inphatiialU  U'- 
jivtiil  h'lth  llu-  |l;m\  I'lniiu'iit  and  tin-  aris|iniai\  — ulitaiiuil  an 
oi'^aii  (it  powiT  ill  till-  Stall  s-miu-ial,  it  nnl\  iK'rdid  to  di'i  laii'  its 
w  iii.  nas  .  I  inl\  to  -^i^  r  i  \pi  rs>.iiiii  t( .  t  he  la'  Is  Inlou'  tin  in.  and  tlu* 
iild  svstrin  111  ppiKs^K  (.ollapsid  in  its  i.uii  1 1  itlciiiuss.  \\  hat  was 
I"  lill'iw  no  man  at  that  linu  \sas  aMc  to  toicsci'.  ^\s  most  mm 
\srn-  r\tirmrl\  ill- iiiloi  nifd  iispiv  tmj_;  ihf  londition  ol'  tlu'  voiiii- 
li\.  tlu-\  indul;4t.'tl  in  liopr-.  which  wrir  all  thi'  mioM'  aidriil  in 
piopoi  linn  as  tlu'N'  wcif  undilini'd.  I>i:t  tlu-ii'  wiir  main  who 
Iviirw  till'  pi\rity  and  !>iui.dil\  o|  ihr  massr--.  tlu'  hiltci'  halii'd 
intwi'i'ii  rich  and  poor,  ;md  ihc  sillish  immotalit\  ot'  tin-  iii)pi'i 
ilasM's.  and  hiol.rd,  soiiU'  with  amhitions  pKa.-iiii  c,  olheis  with 
p.itriotit.'   anxic'lv,  towards  a  stoiim   Inline. 


m 


'I' 

y  M 


r  ^ 


jtj 


-  r. 


r  i: 


m 

bliiii 
rliiH 


r 


7« 


*^i:i  i-ciKAS. 


'Ilir,    KM  \\i  ll'\  I  l\(i    I DUI'   Ol-    SI'I.IN. 


I'uoM  S^.l.l.I.v'^   l-ii  i:    \Ni)    TiMi  ^  (II    Ml  IN,   \(ii,.    1.,   vv.   jS;    jd,. 


1  (   \i  I.    Ii\   this  11:1  inr  t lie  '^ri'.il    I  ".ilii  I  \\  !iie  li  \s  :is    si'^ncil  1  m  lln 
()tli  111    ()tli>li(i.   i.r.   i)iil\    ll\r    (|;i\>    ;itl(i     Stiiii     li;i(|    inriviii     lii-- 
jxtWiT''.  lint    sdli'K   lii'i;iii--r    it    loiiLiin^  ihr  ))iM\isii)n    tli;it    lidiii    ,1 
icil;iiii  tl.ili'  tlu'li-    sli.ill    lie  unlv  iVii-    |ifrs,j|is    in  llic  Sl;ili •>>    <i\    iIk 
Kiii'4   ot    I'liis^i;!.       It    iv    iiulrnl    In    lu     iiiiKirkid    tli.it    llic    |iriiiii 
));il  ;mlhiir>   ol'  llir  iiUMsinr   aw    so  inl' ixiiMlnl    with    llic    piidr   <■' 


liilll''     tlic  lns|i  ,\\  rl  ■■  I  il    III 


nil   iip'-ii  Ik 'tiil-iiu'ii.  tli:it    t!ir\    loi''tl 


to  I'liKirk  how  iiiiuli  iii'iir  ;ui(l  iiow  in:in\  ol  Jin  iiii.iiu  ipalion 
llirv  ;u(.'oiii|)lisin(l  h\  thr  s.iiiii'  ;hI.  Strin's  owii  :ii.iiiuiit  of  thi 
I'Miil    or()(.|olHr   mils   :is   lollows:  — 


\\ 


IC    IIUMslIll 


s  adoptnl  lo  it-iuh  llic  al'o\c-mc!ilioii 


(.(I     I^CIlCT.ll 


(•li|iil  wi'ir 


(  1  )    Ahi  ililioii  of  |)ri  soiial  mi  ri|<  nii  in  t  hr  1  '1  iissi.ni  M( 


uiai  V  li\ 


1>\   an    I'.thrtol    ()tlolnT.   i^o-.  ii  w.isihjntd    tiial  lioin    ()vlolui 

Sill.     |S()(>    (.s/V;    il    silollhl    Ih'    I.'MO),    |)rlsiiii;i|    si'l  ri|(»|l|    W  ilh    itsiOll 

Mi|iK'in.  IS.    I'spii  i.ilU     liu'    \ii\    o|)|)ussi\  (•   oMi<_;atioii    ol'  nuaiial 


si-i  \  lie.  s 


lioiihl  lie  iiiiolisju'ij  ;    ImiI    thr  ol  .1  i'-.it  ioiis  ol    tl 


ir    |)i-as,Mil 


as  lai  llii's   llowt'l    louii  his  jiossissioii    ol    piopniN.  niiiaiiu. 

imahro    '.       Il   was  iisim  \  iil  I'oi   thi-  C'haiui'Iloi    ll.n  diiihi-i '4's  lo\  i 
of  inn    ,  atioii   (on  tlu'  ail\  u  c  ol    a    II.  .' 


who  (hid    hi    .1    iiiiiihK  nisc    .1 


'V.  Iiai  II  iiw  cocr.  a  ilnaiiiri 
t  I'.liii  .,11  II  in  iN_'())  I'l  ii,iiis|i)rm  in 
iSi  I  ihi  nlalioiis  <>{'  llii-  landlord  to  ihi  peasant  i  l.iss,  ami  il- 
iihu'i  laiiiiU  ri'laiioiis  in  a  niaiiiu  1  |n'i  niiii  >hs  to  il  ;  ni  this  I  hail 
no  shall-. 

'*  (j)  Thi'  traiisl'onr.ation  "I  the  pcas.mt'-  on  the  I)oiiiaiii  m 
ICjist  and  \\  I'sl    I'liissi.i  into  Inr  pi  opi  uloi  s.  " 

llfir  iiiri  J  wold  is  said  of  .in\  ihan'_;is  made  h\  liic  I'.dirt  "t 
Octohcr.  rxii'pt  those  \\  hirli  .illi  ■  Ird  thi-  pias.inl.  It  is  tin.'  saiiK 
jispi'it  of  tin-  lalii  t  which  intiiisis  .Sdion.  I'liis  lldiit.  In-  sav^. 
"  has  niadf  tin'  lijiint'  ot  tlu-  \\\n\i  s|;ind  hi'_;lii  1,  snur  hi-  is  luiu  a  • 
Joith  no  loiv^ff  a  ki'1'4  of"  slaves,  l>iit  ot  Ik  .  men."  .Xiid  a;4;aiii  : 
"Thus    i.iiiie    mto    eNistriice    the    law     ot     ()it.    'ith,    l^o",    thai 


I'M  \\iii'\ii\(;  ipn  r  or  sri'iv, 


79 


II.iIhm'^  ('iin>ii>   Alt    111"   our   St.iti-.       'I'lu-    idiM    <it"  I'lfiwldiii   li.nl 


U"'IIM     I'l      ll\i' 


W  It 


1    iii!ul\-mm'    Imiiili  nlllis   nt    ilu'    |)i'ii|ilc    it 


in 


nil-  ;i  (I 


I'cn  .111(1  rU 


A.iliii''  imi)rrs>i(iM  :  tlu'  lew  liii'mU  <>t'  si. 


MTV 


illtrimiril  ;iii(l  iiiiil  iiiiil  I  il  iici  ilniilit  ;i  'j^,n>i\  (lr;il.  si.  t!i;it.  juvordill'.^ 
to  I<  lifili'.;i'r's  stoi  \  .  ;i  piijudu  i<l  III. Ill  sjid  ;,i  tin-  linlin  I '.isino 
.ilU-f   riMdiii'4'   the    l;is\.  •  K.ithrr   tin 


illl 


I'fC     IMIMi-s     I 


'I    Aiuisiiidi    il 


i:ill 


mkIi  ;i  I.iw  I'      I'liil  till-  kill''   stooil  liiiu,  and  (iod    in.iiiit.iiiud   llic 


11' 


flit, 


III  st.itiii'^-    |intl\    siidii'^lv    lis  il. mils  to    ln'  I  oiiskKti'iI    tiu'    ii'iu 
;iiillioio|    the    1  i\\  .  Si  lioii   iis(.-s    lai"'iia''i'  \\  liii  11  s|io\s  s  tli.il    lie    is 


tl 


.Ml 


Is,-  that   I 


imKiii'4  aliiiO'i  cNi  iii-.i\i!\  ot  iiiis  j);iii  oi  II.  "  .\ii  i  lsc  inal 
di'l  il'.  lilf."  Ill-  s,i\s.  ••  w.is  as  iiotlii;i'^r  i-oinpaii'd  l<i  lalliii"^  into 
lili-  ihr  idi-a  of  lii'i-doin."  (  )id\  lioin  oiu'  imsimI  r\|iicssion  do 
wf  li-ain  111. it  III-  f\i-ii  km w  lli.it  lln-  iiKM^ini'  li.id  aimtlu'r  sidi-, 
\\  Ik  Tl'  111-  s,i\s,  ••  I  II  pri-si-iitcd  thai  luudit.iiN  si-itdoiii.  tli.it 
si'oiii'4f  oi  oiir  loiiiiliv  .  iiiii'l  l>r  l'io||'_-lit  to  an  iiid.  and  tlial  a 
|)ioi  lam  ilion  <  ■!  In  r  tr.hli  in  laiidrd  |tio].iil\  would  In  snilii  ii-nt 
to  proinolf  m.itrii.d  inli -u-sls." 

1  li'ir  \\  I'  ail-  siiildrnlv  intro.liucd  to  somk  lliiii^'  (|iiili-  nrw  and 
\ir\  dill<  lint  lioni  llif  aliolition  oi  siitdmii,  nanii'lv  ,  lii-i'  liadi' 
ill  landed  piopi  1 1  \  . 

I  p  lo  ;i  ii'il.iin  point  il  is  tiin-  lliat  llu-sr  two  tliiii'^s  (.oini'idi'. 
(  )iU'  pait  ot  till'  knidi'ii  o|  st>||(|oMi  lav  in  llii'  iiu.ipaiiu  oj  the 
-ell  lo  alii  n.itr  Ids  kiinl  ;  kill  this  is  j  sm.dl  in.itu  r.  I  lu'  |)ioc- 
l.ini.ilioii  111'  iVii'  tradi  in  l.nid  alki  l^d  all  i  kiss,-^  of  v.^it-tv  at 
(iiK'i',  and  llii'  nppri  .ind  iniddlr  tkissrs  nnu  li  iiioir  lli.ni  llu' 
pias.iiilix.  \\  lu  n.  tlu'irtou',  w  r  oksi-i\i-  tli.il  llir  kaliit  of  llu- 
odi  ot  ()itokrr.  al  llir  s;iiiii'  time  lli.it  il  akolis|u-d  pi'isoii.d  si-it- 
doin.  rrniovid  all  liir  piiiiiipal  ristiiiiioiis  tli.it  inliitrird  willi 
ti.illii  in  kind.  \\i'  sci-  llial  il  is  in  ku  I  not  a  sii)._;lc  kiw  .  liut  two 
l.iw  s  in  our,  and  t  \\  o  law  s  oj'  sill  li  luai^nilndi'  lli  il  rai.  Ii  k\  ilsi  ||' 
ini;;lil  In-  I  oiisiili-ii'd  i'inii\  lUnt  lo  a  viiiai  icvolnlioii. 

niil.  wlii'ii  \\  f  look  I  losi-r  still.  \\  i-  disio\  i-r  tli.il  tlu'  I'Miil  v;oi's 
r\iii  tinlliii.  and  shoidd  I'C  lallui  disirikcd  .is  tliuilojd  lli.iii  as 
Iwol'old.  k.ir^l  islinii'ii  ail'  oiil\  too  t.iiniliai  with  llu-  notion  ot" 
.1  drpK'ssid  I  kis,  o|'  a'^i  il  nllni  .d  kikon'i^;  Ixil  sii>  li  di'pii  ssion 
iii.i\  lu-  o|  two  kinds,  .nicl  i.iav  spiiii'.;  Iioiu  two  \i'i\  ditl'i'ii'Mt 
i.nisi's.  Wi-  a'f  not  lo  sujiposr  tliit  lIu'  pi'.is;inli\  ol  I'lii'-^i.i 
well-  in  a  londilion  irsi'inMin;.;  lli.it  ol  oiir  own  kdioioii  .inv 
tnillii'i  than  ;is  il  was  kad.  TIil'  i'\  iU  allliiliiiix  tlu-  rnissi.iii 
pi'. Is. mil  \   Will    those    arisin;^  out    ol   .sA/Zz/.v;   ihosc    wliiili  .illliit 


8o 


SKMXIIONS. 


ICti^Iisli  lahortTs  nrisi'  iiKiiiily  out  ol"  cnnti  ,ut.  'I'lu'  Iji'-;li"^li 
hiliiiiii'  is  iiDiiiin  ilU  iVii'.  jiiil  ;it  liln'ilv  lu  I'.nrx  liis  iihlii>lr\  Id 
iIk'  Ik'sI  iii.iiLiI  ;  lie  is  iidiuid  tu  rr;il  drp.  iiilriKi'  li\  his  iiKi'iil- 
itv  to  iii.ikr  ;i  t';i\  oimIiK'  liar^.iiii  l'..r  liiiii>iir.  'I'lie  l'riissi;in 
|)i';i.s;iiit    \\;is    noiiiiiwillv   :i     snt,  Ipiit    In    tr;ilit\    suiiir    \i'i\     iiiipni-- 


tiint   n;;lits  wen-   siTii      I  t<t    hill). 


W 


air    II'. I    111    siipnn 


lor 


iiislaiux'.  lii.it    iiiirl    |)iiiiishiiR'iits    wvvc    alluwid,  oi    tiiat    hf  was 


siiiiuit    li)    ihr    (,a|)iui'   ol    tiu'    liinlloii! 


was   tar   iiioi 


r     OI 


|)|o|)l  ii  lol'  tiiaii    the    \'.\ 
ti'iimr,  hr    diij    Im    iii.u'l  iial 


i^hsh    iahoiiT.  jo)-,  thoiii^h  on    a  di'^radiiii^ 


ninpoMs  own    iaiii 


i.      X 


or   Will-   ins 


iiitiTi'sts  iH'i^li'fli'd   as   liiosi'  ol    a    liriiuaii.  who    is   sii|)])ost.'d   alilc 


to  take  (.arc  ol'  liinist,'!!.  iiia\    hi'    iif 


u;K'ilr(L      .\<(t    Old 


\   was    lie   a 


iiiriului  of  an  aiuiiiil  and  oi^ani/i'd  \  illa^c  comnuiiiitN .  I>ut  the 


( io\  I'lniiii'iit  also  ti 


and  w  as  oh 


i;^i'd  to   tal\t.'.  thr  ^ri'atcst  pi 


siiiir 


inti'ii'sl    ill    his  (.lass,  lol-    these'  .soil's   wcic   iicitlu'r    more  uoi 


less  I  hail  t  hi'  1  iiisvian  arms 


Now  it  iiii'^ht  wvy  phiiisihly  he  maiiilaiiied  that  the  proelama- 
lioii  ol"  till'  trade  ill  land  would  not  ereale  a  ha|)p\  peasant  class, 
hilt  Would  sinipU  siilistilute  I'or  a  peasantrv  l,il>oriii;_;  under  ei'i- 
tain    i\ils    that    elass  ot"    taniished    diiid'. 


I'ai  'land,  a 


nd  who    it    the\   eaniiot 


(  s   w  iioin     w  e    Know     in 
ailed  sells   can  still  less   he 


called  pi'asanis,  lor  a  piasaiit  piopeilv  so  called  must  liavc  a 
personal  interest  in  tlie  land.  Hence  the  coiiser\  ati\  e  oppoiu-nts 
of  Stein,  siuh  as  Maiwil/,.  actuall\-  declare  that  there  i'\isied  no 
slavers  or  seildom  in  the  .land  when  he  protested  to  aholi.sh  it, 
hilt  ••that  it  then  for  thi'  lirst  time  ln'i^an  to  appear,  uaineh  ,  the 
seildoin  of  the  small  holder  towards  the  creditor,  ol"  the  poor 
and   sick   towards  the  ixilici-    and  thi'    work-houses; 


anil   a!L;ain, 

'*  that  w  ith  the  proclamation  of  tree  trade  disappe  ired  the  pie\  i- 
ous  secuiitv  ol  the  peasa!i';\  in  their  lioliliiiL;s  ;  everv  rich  land- 
owner could  now  Inn  them  out  and  send  iIkiu  oil" —  t'oitmiately 
soarceU  an\ho(l\   was  rich  am   lon;^er  I '" 

These  wi'ie  the  criticisms  ol  the  conser\ative  parlv,  which 
ini^hl  ha\e  heeii  verv  tiiiK  a|)plicalile  to  a  simple  measure  ol  tree 
trade  in  land.  i>ul  tlie  i.dict  of  Octoher  had  in  lad  taken 
account   ot"  the  ilanj^er,    and   contained    an    ex[)ress    pros  isi(Mi    to 


mee 


t    it.      II. 


ence,    as   I    liase    said,    it   wa.s  actuallv    a 


thr 


eeioKi 


eiiactnu'iit,  lor  not  only  did  it  lust  aholish  serfdom  and,  secoiully, 
establish  tree  trade  in  land  ;  hut.  thiidls .  it  endeasoied  to  i;iiaid 
the  peasantry  aj^ainst  the  danger,  which  in  so  niaiis'  countries 
has  [)i()sed  serious,  oi'  being  gratlually  drisen  out  ur  turned  from 


1  It  II  iV 


ail). 


!<-• 


i:m.\\(II'.\ii\<;  iiiii'i'  oi'  -<ii:i\. 


Si 


;ii  i)|)rii  ti  lis    inl'i    \\  a'^r-ii'i  ri\  I  Is    li\    tlu'   itlL-cts  ul     tlii-    uiucinal 
oiiipi  t  llii  III    |o    wliirli    tlu\    ail'   lApuMil. 
At  till'  s;iiiu'  tiiiu'  that    \\  (.'  (.ari'liillv    ili--lii"4iiis!i    llu'si^    (lillrii-iil 


rirut  iiKiils 


ilKiiKlrd    in    <iiK'    I  ,r'4i  .Iali\i'     l.tlui.   lit    iis    hi'     a^ 


aiL-liil  I'l    iiiiiaiU  what  was   nut  iiulihliil    in  it 


i;n..i 


ishnuii  aiv 


apt    til    at;ril'iitr    l<i   tlu 
niliiitliuid    in    this    pi' 


1  Mid 


;ishitiiin    ui'    Sirin    all    the    iinuA  atiwiis 
In    partiiiilai    it    has   iuiii    siipncstal 


that  hr  iiralr.l  tlii'  pi  asant -pK  iprii'tdi  ship  i>\  iiiniliiii  I'liissi.i. 
lint  this  hi'  (lid  ni>l  (Id,  r\i.i.'pt.  as  hr  s:i\  s  in  thr  passc^c  ipidtid 
al"i\i'.  'Ill  thi'  I)iiiiiain  Laihl-;  nf  Wist  ;inil  llast  |'nissi,i.  I'm- 
piit'tdis  in  a  (.I'ltain  sinsi-  ihi-  prasantr\  wiic  lulnir  this  IMiit, 
that  is.  tlK'\  inlti\atiil  land  l>ir  iIu'iiisl-I\  fs.  and  with  a  rmisidrt- 
I'  sivniit'.  ;    pinprii  tills    in   tlu'   lull    si-iisc    tln\   wiii' 


ahli'    si-iisr    II 


t.  liriaiisc  !hr\   liild  i>l    a  landiurd  to  whuni    t 


iiii 


(liK>  and  sri\  u  rs. 


ic\   iiw  n  I    \  all!  HIS 


N 


(iW  >   II 


I's  l".ili(.t  alti  lid  till'  iiatnir  nf  tl 


sri\  ill's,  and  ai  iiilishrd  tlu  niust  nppii  ssi\  c  ;  hut  il  did  m  it  drstrov 
dii'  iT^hts  III  till'  laiidlwid.  Ill  KaM'  thr  pias.inl  soK'  niasicr  nf  the 
land  111-  iiilliv  itid.  It  was  ri'siivi'd  liii  I  lai  iU'IiIhtl;  In  du  this 
\<\  an  1  Idii  t  issiK'd  nil  Si'i)t.  I  (til.  i.Si  I ,  and  it  sluudd  he  iiutiird 
ih  it  Stiiii  r\pi\ss|\  di'iliiRs  In  aiii'pt  aii\-  rrspmisiliililx  fur  this 
iniiiix  atii  HI.  .\'_;ai:i.  it  is  nnl  Id  \)v  snppDsrd  thai  llic  pinv  isinn 
iiis|  iiu  nl  iiiiii'd.  li\  whiili  Shin  tried  Id  pre\eiil  the  alisnipi  ii  m 
111  the  small  liDldiii'^s  li\  the  ui'iat  pi  npi  ietm  s.  has  aeliiallv 
prD\ed  the  means  dI'  pieseiviii'^  the  peasant  elass  in  I'liissia;  lur 
;ill  this  passid  awa\  with  the  leLiislatinii  dI'  I  lardeiihei  4.  and  il 
has  heeii  l'\  its  nwii  \itality.  and  unt  l>y  Stale  iiitei  terenee  that 
peasant 'prDprietDishii)  has  maintained  itself. 

I'uitlier,  it  is  Id  lie  remarked  that  Stein  is  ipiili'  aeemate  when 
1.1'  deserihes  his  Land  UelDim  ;is  iint  ennsisiin^  smK|\-  in  die 
lidiet  ol  ()vtDlii'r.  lull  as  iiielndiiin'  aKn  aiiDlher  ipnte  disliiut 
ait  dT  le'^ishilioii.  w  hieh  a  |)]  died  oiih'  to  the  pidx  iiues  nl'  I  l.ist  and 
West  l*iiissi;i.  This  act  heldiins  to  |iil\.  iSoS.  and  is  eoiilined 
iidt  siiiij>l\  Id  till'  peasants  of  thesi'  Iw  d  pnivinees.  Imt  to  a  par- 
ticular class  iif  peasants.  \i/..  thosi'  SDiiiitimes  called  iiii  »n  il  iittr 
luasants.  or.  in  other  words,  those  who.  lis  inn  011  the  Ko\al  no- 
mains,  had  no  other  landlord  Iml  the  Kiiin'.  il  is  eviilenl  that  the 
(iovernmenl  could  deal  with  these  more  casilv  than  with 
those  peasants  whose  condition  it  could  not  iinpiove  without 
iiicd(lliii;4  w  ill)  the  rights  of  aiiotlier  class.  'J'lic  extreme  distress 
ill  which  these  two  provinces  lay,  ami  which  the  (lovermnent 
was  in  no   coiulilion    to  relieve  directly,  was  the  justification  for 


It 


hill 

lilil 


-   \ 


«; '. 


,1; 


82 


SI  I.KCIIOVS. 


^i;mlin'4  privilcLTt""  l<>  llu'-i'  p.ii  liiiil.ir  iinim'ili;itr  pr.isniits.  \\  Inih. 
tor  tilt'   iiiDiiuiit,  WLic   Hot   txtiiitkd  In   tlm-'f  ol"  llii"  ullui    piux- 

ilUTS. 

Siu  li,  tlirii.  (Ictiind  ill  l;i'Ik!;i1  tiTiiis.  \\,is  llic  i\|(  lit  <it  lliis 
iitniiii.  Il  iHi.U,  Imw  t  \  IT.  a  mm  li  iIh-it  tlf^u  ipl  i<  hi.  In  llu- 
lii^l  |tl,uc  llic  ii.iilir  imi'-l  ;_;iianl  a'^aiiivl  a  iiii-.i|)|)riliriisic  .u  <i| 
llu-  |iliia-f.  ••  liii-  tihlc  ill  laiul."  iiitii  wliirli  lif  is  |ikil\  In  in-  Inl 
1>\  his  I'.iijisli  I  spii  it  lu  r.  I'liT  Ii.hli'  in  laii<l  isal-i'  a  i  r\  '>! 
•  nil-  (>\\  n  I  clMniu  Is  ;  Imt  we  nius|  ln\\  air  i  il  sii|i|,(,^iii  _.  |  hal  \\  lial 
tlit.'\  I  ill  I'm  is  till-  saiiu'  lliiii;^  llial  \\  is  •_.ranU  il  in  I'ln^sia  li\ 
Sti'in's  I'.iliil,  'rill-  tniiiphini  in  Ilii'^laiiil  is  ihal  a  minil'ir  nl 
piaillial  I  il  sii  ui  I  iuiis  picvinl  lan>l  I'mhii  luii  '^  llir  i.lijril  nt'  siuli 
tVi'i-  piHi  liasi'  ami  sali'  as  •  itjui  i  (  miiiii' >(lilics.  Miuli  i.|  llif  land 
ol*  llif  I'  nil  ill  \  .  it  is  said,  is  in  1 1  if  hands  i  .|'  pii  s,  ,iis  \\  In  >  in  lam  II  \ 
scllli-nuail-  hasc  '^ivni  iiplhf  ri^lit  to  .dii  n.ilf  il  :  llii'  s\s|rm 
niitK  1  whiili  landed  pinpriU  is  iniivcM  I  is  -,. .  iiinil  m  on  ■  and  t-A- 
pi'iisiNf  as  |(»  di  til  ]H-'ip|r  iVnm  lr.iiisa<  I  ions  o|  llu  kind;  and. 
I  a  si  I  \  .  1 1\    In  (i'_;iii/in'_;  I  lir  priiu  iplc  of  pi  iiii'  .'.'.riiil  m  f  \\  il  h  ifspini 


to  land    and    mil  willi  irs|)iHt  |o  piisonal    poipiiiv    in  v  ,i>i  s  uj' 


in- 


tistai  \ 


hr  law  ils(dl"  i"'Miiiliiiaiui's  ihi'  iioiinii  ihal  lamli'd 
proptilN  stiiids  in  a  i  lass  1«\  iisidl'.  and  is  mil  i..  In  <lr.ill  uilh 
oi-  liaiislriu-d  as  if  ii  wiif  pniiK  a  lomm.idil  \  .  Nm\s\  il  is  an 
inslaii'.c  'i|  till'  toiirnsin'4  and  mislcadin  .;  in.niiiiai  \  (i|  nm  pail\ 
I  lies,  whin  liic  ii'iiio\al  o|  ihi'sc  li-sli  ii  (i.)i,s  is  lalUd  her  Ir.idc 
in  land.  I  iic  liadr  in  oiIut  lascs  nuaiis  ihf  iinidval  <  >\  H'stiii- 
tidiis  imposi'd  l)\  till-  law  or  hs  ihc  '_;o\  ci  hiik  iil  ;  hiit  llusi-  w- 
strii'lioiis  arc  of  tpiiu-  anollui   kind.       (  )nl\   iIr-  last    iiu-nlioiiial 


IS 


the  w  ol  k  o|    ihc  I  i  w  ,  ami  il 


I' mm  it    III  an\   |)i  opi  r  s<-nsi' 


:i  ii-.sliii  I  il  III.  till   ihr  onl\    w  a\    in  w  hirli  il  opri  ,ilis  itsI  i  ii  iin^K    i- 
l)\   Kndiii'^  till'  moral    inlliuiK  i'  of  llu-  law   to  ihr  snppmi  ,,\   a    n 


s|i  ut  i\  I'     s\  sicin. 


lir    tinnoronsiu'ss    o|    nm     loiucs  am  iii''    >• 


nuTidv   ihf  iisnll    ol    till'   i^iadiial  wa\    in  whiili   oin    l.iml  svsU'iii 


h;is  lutii  lornii'd,  an 


I  as  to   II 


ii'  svs'iaii  ol    s,ii  Iriiuiils.  sn  l.ir  tmni 


lu'iiiL;  a  n  s| rirtion  ot  tVi-i'dom.  it  is  ihf  ilin*  t  irsiill  of  Inidoir.  "i 
c'onliail.  so  iiiiuli  sn  Ih.il  the  ict'niim  is  llnaiisiK  i-s  diinand  .111 
iiiti  I  Irniuc  ol  liir  law  to  pitvcnl  il  :  in  other  words,  wish  t  ■ 
promoli'    what    llic\    i.ill    lire  trade    hx    a    new     le^a!  pinhihilioii. 

No,»,  when  Stein  is  said  to  lia\e  islalilished  tree  trade  in  land, 
the  expression  is  in  he  iin<leistnod  literalh.  The  liindi  aiiees  lo 
tlic  sale  and  pmeliase  of  land  wliieli  he  renio\  id  were  not  aei  1- 
deiil.d  piaclicd  ol'slacks,  hul   toiiual    leL;,il    [)iohihilioii.s.      In  th 


IM  \N<  ii\ri\i.  1  I'll  r  Ml    vi  1  i\. 


83 


:t  u 


1  r 


>'     \^ 


lU'lli 

In  .111 


(ilil  l.iw  i>\'  I'ln^si;!  :iiul  ill  tlic  C'otli-  lit"  I'lnlriiik  ni  \ li'^iMm-iiit's 
I  ..iiidi  1  I  lit.  \\liii-|)  V  :mir  iiiln  IniiC  in  l  7' 1 1 .  it  is  i.iiil  duwii  lli;it 
ii'ilijr  t --lilis  (.i(ltliL;r  (  iiilci  )  i  iii  milv  It  luld  l'\  iinMcs.  :iii<l 
til. It  |)ii-iinv  <it  ri\ik-  miv^iii  ( Inn '^i  i  lii  lin  llriknnll)  i;ni  unlv 
;ui|niii'  IIhiu  1i\  i  \|>irs>-  pel  ini^'-ii  in  nl  llir  suviici^n.  In  tiic 
sMiiii'  \\.i\  |ic.i- nit-l.in,|  innM,,!--  i  rnir.  nnh  In-  luld  l'\  pr.is.nils, 
:nid    l.nid  I'll' inL;in;4    tn    liiwnsunK    li\   lili/ciis 


w 


;ii('    t;nnili;il' 


\\  itll    111''    idlM    III     iMsIl 


MM' 


I  I   lininan   In  iii'.'s.  in, it  is.  ,,\   ail 


nii.iltci  .il'lc  \/<///ts  s|.iin|)fil  II I )i  III  a  nian  IV'  nn  lii-  l-ii  tli  ;  in  I*rnssi;i 
il  iii:i\  I'c  sa'd  that  i';|sti'  I'Mflldi'd  luMl.ilU  I'lllir  laii'l.  so  lliat 
«'\tT\   H'imI  III    ^"il   ill  tlic  I'lniilrx    was  nj  a  dilinitr  and  iin  Ml.  laLN- 


laiiK.  and.  Iinwt'vn    il  nii'^lil  «  liaii'^c  il--  nwiu  is,  alw.ivs  nni.iiiii'i 


llllliT    lln 


ir  I  ili/i'ii   nr  in'asaiil    laii 


I.      \' 


is\  .  til.-    tii^t    itiii'  i\  :i- 


timi  ii'iilaiiu'd  in  Slrin's  I'.dirl  runsisicd  in  iaiuiMliii'4  in  llif 
liwcst  and  siiiipli'st  words  all  tlu'  ii-i^iil.iliiuis  w  liii  li  csliil'lislu'il 
i';is|c    in    laii'l. 

\\  Inn  llic  I".dirt   is  lAainiiii'.  I    m"ir  ijnsrlv   it   will    In'  seen  to  he 


\  ril    lliail    it     W  a-    1 1-;  il  isriitrd 

ivh 


\'<  i\  r 


iiiikMi  nion-   ci  iiii|)i  i  In  iisi\  c   i 

\s  lii-n    I    p"iiili-d  mil   liow    iniu  II  iiioir  i  '  HiipitMu'iisiv  i'    it    was    tii.in 


WIS 


;iiininoiil\    siipjii  i^cd.  Ill   til. Ill  Siflii  liiinscir  di-st  I  ilu' 


'I  it.       I' 


or 


at  till-  sanu'linii'  that  il  al"illslus  la'-tc  in  l.iiid.  It  a*.  I'oinplislu'S 
.aiiollui  .III  "f  till, ini'l|iat  il  III.  w  hi*  li  is  in  im  w:i\  cNpri'ssiMl  in  tlic 
pln;isc  II  If  1 1  .nil'  in  Iiinl:  it  iriii"\(s  .iii'illui'  'pillr  di-linrt  set 
of  I  isli  il  t  ion>.  ami  alu'lislu's  lastc  in  priscms.  IMic  Codr  of 
I'l  I'llri  il  k  pi"liil>iU'l  tlir  II' ilM.  man  11  <  nil  iii'^a'^iii'^  in  aii\  niiii- 
p.iti'iii  propiiK  I '1  1' iii'4in;4  lo  tin-  liti/iii.  and  onl\  allowid  iindtT 
iril.iin   I'oiidiliiin-'    llic    lili/iii    to    pass    into   llu'  i  Ia>s   ,,\    prasanlH 


ii     llir     peasant     into    tin-    i  l.iss    ol     iiti/riis. 


'I  111'     \olilis.    th 


t'ifi/ni^.  till'  I'lM^aiits;  tliisc  wani'  llir  tliU'i-  t;isti's  into  wldilj 
tin-  I'lii-'-laii  popnlalioii,  'iiitsidr  Hir  pi '  ilr-si.  in>.  was  divi'lii'; 
into  oiu-  or  ollu  I   ol  t  luni  i.u  li  jxtsi  n  was  lioi  n.  and  in  t  lie  s  imt-, 

as  as.simu'd    its   s|)i'i'ial    pin- 
(  d    iiii  isdit  I  ioi) 


as  .(   niir .   Iir  iliiil 


o  I  .u  II    rasir    w 


t.itr   and    iNi'ti  i- 


suit.  I  111'  N'lMi-  iiiltivatrd  liis  is 
o\iT  till'  pcasantrv  w  lio  luld  iiiidrr  liiii;.  thoii'^li  lu'  ii-iild  not 
liiniscir  lie  ild  or  iiiltlvali-  prasanldaiid  :  lii'  .iNo  siivrd  tlii'iviii'^ 
in  t  i\  il  ol  inilitaiA  oliiiH-.  Tlu-  I'r.isaiil  iiiltivatid  his  p|,,|  nl" 
l^roiiiid.  iiiidi  riii'^  li\rd  st  r\  ins  to  tlir  hud,  ami  suhiiit  to  his 
jiirisdiilion.  ami  Ik  lom^i  d  at  ihr  s.nnc  tinir  to  the  laiiU  .iiid  lili' 
ol  thrannv.  Hit  wii'ii  thcin  stood  ihr  (  "iti/cii.  holding  a  in<iiiop- 
olv  III'  ti.idrs  and  imhistrii's,  wliiili  lt\  law  wvw  (.•onlinrd.  with  , 
lew  c\cii)lioii.s.  to  llif  low  U.S.      It    is  icniarkahk;  that  the  military 


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(716)  873-4503 


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:\ 


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iis  ' 


i 


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H4 


SELFXriONS. 


i' 


|)l"o 


R-- 


ion  w.'is. 


for  llic  most  WAvt,  closed  to  liin 


This   must  l)c 


hoiiiL-  in  mind  uiicn  w c  compaiX'  liiu  Sl-ncmi  \'i';irs"  \\';ti"  witli  tlio 
War  ol'  Lil)ciation.  \\  t;  have  read  ol"  the  iraiful  coiisimiption 
of  iiKii  c;aised    l)v  the   Seven   ^'ea^s'  War.  and    ol"  the   desperate 


shitts  ot'  Fieileri 


k  to   procure   recruits 


l)Ut 


we  mus 


t  understand 


that  no  h'vci'.  cii  viassc  took  phice  then,  and    tliat  the  citi/.en  class 
had  >carcel\  aiiv  siiare    in  what  was:  L;;oin<;"  loruard.      'J'his   is  the 


moie    to  lie    noted    because    the    connection 


bet 


w  et'i 


class   and 


tl 


le   learne( 


1  eh 


iss    was  closer  than   in  o 


1   tl 
ther 


le    citizen 
countries. 


The    leainiiiLC,    literature,    and    philosopin ,    which   llourished   so 


remarkably  in  that  atre,  took   the  tone  (<1'  the  middle  cl; 


and 


curious    result    followec 


In    the  most    military    of   all   modein 


.States,  literature,  because  it  spran<^  from  a  class  which  enjoxed 
an  exemption  from  military  service,  and  as  a  conseiineiice,  the 
tone  of  jjublic  feeling  which  is  determined  by  literature,  was  in 
an  especial  decree  wantini^  in  the  military  spirit — Scharnhorst 
describes  the  army  as  being  <;enerally  hated  and  despised,  antl 
Kant  speaks  with  contempt  of  a  man  of  education  who  had  em- 
braced a  military  life — and  this  fact  goes  some  way  to  explain 
th.at  pheinv.neiion  uS.  a  military  state  lighting  exceptionally  ill 
which  \ye  have  so  long  had  l>efore  us. 

This  state  of  society  is  very  foreign  to  our  ideas,  and  may, 
perhaps,  because  we  have  no  experience  of  it,  fascinate  some 
imaginations.  No  Laissez  faire  here  ;  every  man's  place  is 
assigned  to  him  from  his  birth  ;  his  occupations  are  jirescribed, 
and  a  great  t;'  kmaster,  or  earthly  Providence,  stands  at  the  head 


)f  tl 


le    whole  s(jciety 


w 


hich 


ill 


1    may   be  called  army  or    nation   at 


pleasure,  since  even  the  unmilitary  citizens  were  regarded  by  the 
State  principally  as  a  sort  of  commissariat  department.  And, 
for  tlie  immediate  purpose  of  Frederick  William  1.  and  Frederick 
the  (jreat.  the  system  was  well  adapted,  for  that  purpose  was 
simply  military.  A  place  for  every  man,  and  every  man  in  his 
place  ;  the  '•  productive  forces  of  the  country  perfectly  inven- 
toricil,  and  a  tlebtor  and  creditor  account  of  its  resoiuces  kept 
by  such  a  system  the  rulers  could  wield  the  whole  force  of  the 
country  most  easily  and  certainly.  Nevertheless,  the  destruc- 
tion of  this  whole  system  by  a  stroke  of  Stein's  pen,  was  now 
legariled  as  the  greatest  of  reforms,  and  the  commencement  of 
the  restoration  of  Prussia.     For  it  will  be  evident  that  the  same 


"  .1 


1  Morier. 


KM.\.\"C1PATI.\(;    I'.DICT   OF   STEIN. 


sxstcni    which     concLMilratei 


so 


pow 


ci 


full^ 


aiiil    mcastiviMl 


cxactU  the 


torccs  (I 


I    til 


r  c()iinlr\  at    the  same  time  (.iitireh   pro- 


vented   them  tVnin  ^lowiiii^,  not  to  mention   the   intelleclnal   staf^- 


natioii. 


Ol 


itside    the    l'ni\ersit\-   woihl,   \v 


ueh    \\  i 


l)ro(luceil 


l>v 


SlICll     ll^lll 


iinitormit\'  ot"  lite 


A 


C()untr\-  111  \vhie!i   no  man   can 


oilow  his  naliiial    heiit,  take  to  a<nieultnre 


it 


lie    (loc>s    no 


t    1, 


Ke 


trade,  or  to  trade  if  he  does  not  Micceed  in  an'rienltiire,  i--  e\  identlv 
not  an    industrial   coniitr\'  ;    its   material   lesouret's  under  siieh    a 


s\stem  will   remai 


1 


>,. 


rnssia  was. 


tl 


n    undeveloped,  and  if  it   he   a    ])oor  eouiitr\-,  as 
11   aetualK'    in   the   cu^l   defeat    its   own 


le   s\  stem  wi 


ohject,  for  such  a  ctnuitry  from  mere  poverty  will  he  weak  in 
war. 

As  the  thst  section  of  the  Indict  aholi.shcd  what  I  ha\'e  called 
"  caste  in  land,"  so  the  second,  consisting'  of  ahont  three  lines, 
aholishetl  caste  in  persons.  And  here  it  may  perhaps  be  ohsiixed 
that  I  omitted  ahove  one  principal  circumstance  which  made  such 
sweepinii^  changes  so  easv  to  Stein.  IJefore  the  Peace  of  TiNit 
it  would  have  been  scarcelv  possible  to  cany  out  such  reforms, 
h()\\e\er  much  the  rulers  inii4ht  ha\e  been  coiuinced  ot  their 
neccssitv.  Frederick  liad  shrunk  tVoni  the  emancipation  of  the 
serfs  because  he  lelt  that  it  would  introduce  disorder  into  Ids 
arm\',  and  !br  the  same  reason  these  relorms  also  would  ha\e 
been  scarcelv  practicable  so  Ioiil;'  ;is  the  arm\  existed.  Tlie 
disasters  brought  with  tlieni  the  compensation  that  the\'  destioxid 
for  a  moment  this  iucul'us;  the  necessll\-  of  maintaininL;-  a  j^ieat 
position  in  ICurope.  the  neces,sit\-  even  ot"  defeiidiii;^'  liie  couiiti\-, 
ceased  when  the  countrx'  aclualK  tell  into  I'^rench  occu]ialioii. 
and  tluis.  as  we  ma\  sa\-.  the  buildiiiL;-  bein;^  down,  il  was  lor  the 
first  time  possible  to  mend  a  defect  in  the  foundations. 

These  reforms,  faxored  as  the\  were  b\  circumstances  and  re- 
(piirin^-  but  few  lines  in  the  ICdict,  were  \et  much  more  funda- 
mental and  pregnant  with  conse(|uences  than  an\  such  practical 
reforms  as  mav  be  called  for  in  l-^n^land  to  make  the  purcliavc  i;f 
hind  more  easv.  Thev  were  a  sort  of  Ma^iia  Charta  to  tlie 
Prussians,  ami  Schcin  mi^ht  well  ha\e  applit'd  to  them  the 
enthusiastic  expressions  which  he  keeps  for  the  sections  which 
emancipated  the  serf.  In  w  Kiiime's  standard  text-lionk  (»f 
Prussian  Constitutional  Law,  1  lind  in  the  cha])ter  on  Kl^hts, 
under  the  iirst  title.  Freedom  or  vSecurity  of  the  Person,  that 
this  freedom  is  composed  of  three  rights:  (i)  the  rij^ht  of  move- 
ment and  free  choice  of  abode  (Frei/iigi<^keit)  ;    (2)  the  rii^ht  of 


\n 


M 


i\:: 


j':  ;in  jsa 


* 


iltl 


..fill 


ww^ 


86 


SELECTIONS. 


cmiiLjr.'ition  (^Aiisw  ;m(k'riin'.;sii'clit)  ;  (3)  tJic  rii^Jit  of  cJiooshii^'  a 
calling  nr  Ircnlr  (I'^rcic  \\  ;ilil  von  I>L'iiit  iiiul  ( icw  I'lbe)  ;  ;iii(l  this 
lliird  ri^lit  \\e  arc  inlonucil  was  j^ivcn  to  the  I'lussians  hv  tlic 
Edict  of  October,  1S07.  'J'he  same  is  said  ol"  th''  Inst  ol'  the 
rit^iits  whieli  l;o  to  make  ii])  the  second  Title;  \i/..,  iVee  ri^ht  to 
the  ac(|nisition  and  possession  ol'  pvoi^eitx'  (i'"reies  Kecht  zuin 
J-2r\\eil)e   und    Ik'sit/c   des    ILii^iientiuniis) . 

I  proceed  to  '/wx'  the  text  of  tlds  I'kUct,  the  \;ist  impoitance 
of  whicli  will  lia\e  by  this  time  become  clear.  The  less  im])or- 
lant  sections  are  printed  in  a  smaller  type,  and  of  §>;  III.  and  V., 
as  purely  technical,  only  the  headinj^  is  .^ivcn. 

"  Juliet  C'^iiccnihii^  /lie  fiH/lifdtic)/!  of  possi'ss/oii  iiiid  llw  free  use  of  la)t(led 
/>ro/ie>-/y,  as  ivell  as  the  pe/si'ial  relatio)is  of  the  iiihabitaiits  of  the 
eoniilry. 

"  W'l;,  Frederick  William,  Ijy  the  grace  of  (]od  King'  of  I'russia,  (.^c, 
&c.. 

'•  Make  known  licrcljy  and  give  lo  uiulcrstancb  Since  tlie  beginning  of 
the  j)eace  We  have  I)een  before  all  things  occupied  with  tlie  c\ue  for  the 
d(.'])ressed  condition  of  Otir  fiithfiil  sulijects,  ami  the  speediest  restoration 
and  greatest  improvement  of  it.  We  iiave  iierein  considered  that  in  the 
iini\ei-sal  need  it  passes  the  means  atOnr  lommand  to  fnrnisli  lielp  to 
each  irdivichiah  and  yet  We  could  not  attain  the  ohjcct ;  and  it  accords 
ecjually  with  the  imperative  demands  of  justice  and  with  the  ])rinci]>les  of 
a  proper  national  economy,  to  remove  all  the  hindrances  which  hitherto 
prevented  the  individual  tVom  attaining  the  prosperity  which,  according  to 
the  measure  of  his  powers,  lie  was  capable  of  reaching;  t'urther,  We  have 
considered  that  the  existing  restrictions,  i)artly  on  the  jiossession  and 
enjoyment  of  landed  pro|Hrtv,  jjurlly  on  the  personal  condition  of  the 
agricultural  lahorer,  specially  thwart  Our  benevolent  purpose  and  disable 
a  great  three  which  nught  he  applied  to  the  restoration  of  cultivation,  the 
former  b_\'  their  prejudicial  inliuenee  on  the  value  of  landed  property  and 
the  credit  of  the  jjroprietor,  the  latter  bv  ilindnishing  the  value  of  la!)or. 
We  inu-jiose,  therefore,  to  reduce  Ijoth  within  the  limits  recjuired  by  the 
common  welbbeing,  and  accorilingly  ordain  as  follows  :  — 

"  ^  I.      Freedom  of  r^xcbaiiq'c  in  Land. 

''  ICver\-  inhabitant  of  our  States  is  competent,  without  any 
limitation  on  the  part  of  the  State,  to  possess  either  as  property 
or  plechge  landed  estates  of  e\ery  kind  ;  the  nobleman  therefore 
to  possess  not  only  noble  but  also  non-noble,  citizen,  and  jK-asant 
lands  of  every  kind,  and  the  citizen  and  peasant  to  possess  not 
oidy  citizen,  peasant,  ;uul  other  non-noble,  but  also  noble,  pieces 
of  land,  witiiout  either  the  one  or  the  other  needing  any  special 


exi^ 


i   ". 


F.MAXCIl'ATIXC.    KDICT    OK   STKIX. 


8: 


^ 


permission  for  ;in\  ;ici[iiisili()n  of  land  wliak'vt'v,  although,  licncc- 
lorwaid  as  iR't'orc,  cacii  change  ui'  possession  nuist  be  announced 
to  the  antliDiilies. 

"  Jf   II.      I'ree  Choice  of  Occupation. 

"  lC\eiv  nolile  is  hrncefoilii  permitted  withonl  an\-  diTOL^ation 
from  his  position,  to  (.'xerci-se  cili/eii  occupation  ;  and  e\er\-  citi- 
zen or  peasant  i>  allow  rd  to  pass  from  the  jieasant  into  the  citizen 
class,  or  iVom  the  cili/en  into  the  peasant  class. 

"  ^5  111.  I  low  lar  a  Ic^al  liylit  (.A'  rre-emiition  and  a  First  Claim  still 
exist. 

'•  i;  IV.     I)i\isinn  of  Lands. 

"Owners  ot'  Fstates  and  Lands  of  all  kinds,  in  thcnisrlvts  alienable 
either  in  Town  or  diuiUiA',  are  allowi'd.  alter  diu'  notirt'  ^i\iai  to  the  pro- 
\ineial  andmiitv,  with  reserxalion  ol  the  rights  ot'  Diieet  Creditors  ,nid  of 
those  who  have  the  ris^ht  of  pre-emption  (5$  III.),  to  separate  the  i)rineipal 
estate  and  its  i)arts,  and  in  j^eneral  to  alienate  piecemeal.  In  the  same 
way  Co-proprietors  may  divide  anionn'  them  property  owned  in  common. 

"  §  V.     Crantin;;  of  Lstates  under  Leases  for  a  Loni;'  'i'erm. 

'•  ;;  \'I.      f^xtiiiction  and  Consolidation  of  Pea>aut  lloldin^s. 

'•  W  lull  a  landed  pi\)priet()r  heliexes  himself  unahle  to  restore 
or  keep  up  the  si'wral  peasant  holdini^s  existin^■  on  an  estate 
which  are  not  helil  li\  a  iiereditaiA'  tenure,  whether  of  a  Ioul:^ 
lease  or  of  cop\  liold.  he  is  retpuied  to  Ljive  information  to  the 
<;"overmnent  of  the  pr<A  ince.  w  ilh  the  sanction  ot'  which  the  con- 
solidation, either  of  sexeral  holdings  into  a  sinj^Ie  pi'a>aul  estate, 
or  with  demesne  land.  nia\-  he  allowed  as  soon  as  heieditarv 
serfdom  shall  ha\e  ceaM'd  to  exist  on  the  estate.  The  pro\  incial 
Authorities  w  ill  he  pro\  ided  with  a  s[)ecial  instruction  to  meet 
these  cases. 

''  §  \  II.  If.  on  the  other  hand,  the  ]ieasant  temues  are  hered- 
itarv.  w  hether  of  lon<r  lease  or  of  cop\  hold,  the  coirsolidation  or 
other  alteration  of  the  condition  of  the  lands  in  (piestion,  is  not 
adniissihle  until  the  lii^ht  of  the  actual  possessor  is  extinguished, 
whether  1)\'  the  iiurch.ase  of  it  hv  tlie  lord  or  in  some  other  legal 
way.      In  this  case  the  regulations  ol"  J;  \'I.  also  apply. 

•'  §  \'III.  Indehtetlness  of  Feudal  and  Entailed  L'stales  in  consequence 
of  the  Ravages  of  War. 

"  F".\ery  possessor  of  feudal  or  entailed  ])roperty  is  emjiowered  to  raise 
the  sums  re(|uired  to  replace  the  losses  caused  hy  war,  by  mort<j;aj;in!jj  the 
substance  of  the  Estates  themselves,  as  well  as  the  revenues  of  them,  pro- 


^1 

I* 


it 

IT' 


■  1 

:     1 


ii.; 


^ 


88 


SEI.KCTinxs. 


vidcd  llio  .•ii)|)liratinn  of  the  money  is  nttcsU'd  I)y  ihc  Administrator  fF.and- 
ratli)  of  the  C'iirU;  or  the  Direction  of  tlu  nejiartment.  At  tlie  end  of 
tlirc  e  \ears  fiom  tlu;  conti".!(  lin'^  of  tlie  del.'t  the  jxissessor  and  his  suc- 
cessor lire  hound  to  pay  otf  .it  least  the  lifteeiith  part  of  the  capital  itself. 

"  l.\'.  J'!\tinclion  of  i'"eudal  Kel.itious,  F.unily  Si'ttlements,  and  En- 
tails, li\   [•"andl)'  Kesolution. 

"l-',vii\  feudal  (onnection  not  subject  to  a  Chief  i'i-opnetiir,  every 
faniih'  settlement  and  entail  nia\  he  altered  at  pleasure  or  entiich-  aholi.^hed 
bv  a  i'"amil\-  Resolution,  as  is  alre;ul\'  eiiacjed  with  rt  li  leiice  to  the  I-^.ist 
Prussian  Fiefs  (except  those  of  Jumelaiulj  in  the  liiasj.  Prussian  Provincial 
Law,  Appendix  36. 


"  i?  X.     Alu.litioii  of  \'illa 


ina''c, 


\\ 


"•  I'^roin  tlu-  (late  of  tiiis  ( )i(liinmc(.'  no  new  rclatioii  of  \  ilhiiiiaLTc, 
lictlici'  liv  Iiirlli,  or  marriauc  or  ac(|uisili()ii  oi'  a  lioKlin;^,  or  by 


coiitracf,  can  come  into  c\l^tcncc. 


"  >;  XI.  With  the  publication  of  tlie  pri'scnl  Ordinance  tlu- 
C'xislinn'  condition  of  \illainanc  of  those  \illain'-  witli  tiieii^  wives 
and  children  who  possess  their  peasanl-hol(linL';s  1)\-  lieie(litar\ 
teiun'es.  of  \\  hatexer  kind,  ceases  entirelv  b(Uh  w  ilh  il>  ri'-IUs  and 


(Inlies. 


>;  Xrr,      I'loin  Martinmas,  iSio,  ceases  all  \illaina''e  in   Oin- 


entire   Stales.      l'r<ini 


Mart 


innias.   iSkj.  there   shall    he  only  free 


jKTsons.  as  tliis  is  aireaah'  the  case  upon  llie  Domains  in  all  Oni' 
pro\inces  ;  iVee  jH'rsons,  iiowever,  still  subject,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  to  all  the  oblii^ations  \\  Inch  bind  them  as  iVee  persons  b\- 
viitue  ot"  the  possession  of  an  estate  en"  by  virtue  (jf  a  special 
conti'act. 

'•  To  this  declaration  of  Our  roval  Will  e\ery  man  whom  t  may  concern, 
and  in  innticular  Our  [)rovincial  antl  other  ^overnmenls.  are  exactly  and 
]o_\ally  to  confoim  themselves,  and  the  present  (Ordinance  is  to  be  made 


univei'sailv  known. 


'•  Auth 
9th,   1807. 


en  Ileal 


under  Our  roval  Signature.      Given  at   Memel,  C)ct. 


Fkii:i'K1(  II  Wii.m.L.M, 


**  Schrotter,  Stein,  Schiiitter  II. 


The  elder  .Schrotter  was  at  this  time  "Minister  for  the  province 
of  Prussia,  and  he  w  ith  his  brother  was  entrusted  with  the  ta.sk 
of  publishinj^-  the  Ordinance  in  the  province  w  liere  it  had  rc- 
ccivetl  tlie  king's  si<j;nature.  It  is  tor  this  reason  that  their 
names  are  alKxetl  to  it  aloiit):  with  Stein's. 


I".M.\.\(|l'.\ri\(i   F.DICT   OK  sii:iv. 


89 


Tliat   tliirt't'old   fli;ir:ictcM"  of  the  Kilict  \vliii.-li   was  jiDintcd   out 


ll)i)\(.-.    wii 


anniar  \  l1'\   \  imi  >W  h\'  nhs 


t.'r\in'4  tliL-   tln\'o 


^MMiips  0 


■tlOll.'- 


w  liK'li  oil  acci) 


lint 


tluir  (."-nt'Cial  niiixntaiuc  lia\c'  hrcii 


lie  aliolitioii  ot    ea>lt'.  'mtli    in    la 


ml  and 


jirinted    in    laiL;e   t\pe. 

ill    ]K'i"^iin->.  is  iiceoiiiplislu'd    in  tlii'    liist 

tion  of  \  illaliia''e  in  the  last  three,  whieh.  it    is   e\ident.  iiii''ht   as 


tuo   sretiDiis 


tht 


ahoii- 


\\  I' 


haw  ei  inin()se<l  a  separate  edict.      Seetimis  (t  and 


dueed   to   ])ie\fnt    the   s\  stem   <>!    tree  trade    111    laiin 
too   hard   on    the   jieasaiit  and   niakiiiL;'  the   iiroprii'l 


are  nitio- 
iroiii  luMriiiLj 


orsnii)  ol 


and 


a    !iionoi)ol\   o 


I   th 


e    rielier   classes. 


llav 


iiiL;'   traced   the   historv   ol'   the  ]ire])aratioii    ol"   tl 


lis 


i:dict, 


and   examined    its   nature   and   the  changes   it    introduced, 
in  a  condition  to  iiupiire  who  are  the  persons   to  whom 
siaiis   ina\'  coiisidAT  tliemsid\es  cliielK'  iiuK 


we  are 


lie 


lUS- 


lUed 


u-    It, 


II 


n  snch  cases  the  [}oj)ular  niind  invarial>i\'  maivis  a  niisappre- 
heiision  which  it  is  almost  in  \ain  to  atteiii))!  to  correct.  It 
attriiiiites    to    the 


an 


tlior 


aiiassisu'd    intellii^ence    and    will    ot"    a    siiiLi'le 
\\  iial   was   iiecess;nilv   the    joint-work   ol"   main'.      In    this 


ittle 


instance  Stein  has  ohtainetl  a  i)oj)ular  tame  to  which  he  has 
riL;ht,  and  which  partl\'  compensates  for  nuicli  inijnst  ne;;lect. 
\\  liile  his  real  life  and  actions  ha\e  heen  litlk'  known,  he  has 
trained  a  sort  of  leu\'n(lar\  reputation,  snch  as  has  gathered  round 
man\'  other  legislators,  and  has  hi^cii  credited  with  all  the  iudi;"- 
ment.  technical  skill  and  wisdom  implied  in  the  training'  of  a  law 
^\hich  has  rexohitioni/cd  ;t  couiiti\-.  I  lis  admirers  need  not  hesi- 
tate lor  a  moment  to  disown  for  him  all  snch  uii'^rouiided  preten- 
sions. In  the  construction  of  tlie  l.mancipatinL;"  indict  Stein  had 
110  i;reat  share.  l>efore  it  reached  his  hands  it  was  almost  com- 
plete, and  we  iiiav  distinj^iiish  two  a<rents  1)\'  whom  it  had  heen 
made  snch  as  it  tlun  was.  The  tirst  aLjeiit  was  w  hat  we  call  the 
S[)irit  ot'  the  A'^e.  that  is,  the  sum  of  iiinneiicc  ]5i  oceediiiL;-  partlv 
from  the  hiimanitariaii  writers,  paitl\-  i'rom  the'  economists  of  the 
ei'^hteeiith  centurv.  hv  which  the  majorit\'  of  those  w  ho  i^uided 
imhlic  aiVairs  had  heen  convinced  of  the  iiecessit\-  of  certain  L;reat 
changes.  W  hen  a  man  like  I  lardenher^,  who  had  no  special  or 
•professional  learniii'L:,  conlidentlv  sanctioned  such  sweeping-  ])ro- 
posals  as  those  \\hicli  Altenstein  laid  l)efore  him.  In.'  ])roclainu-d 
in  etVect  that  the  work  of  the  Zeit;4eist  was  done.  I'rom  that 
moment  the  matter  of  the  law  existed,  and  tlu'  (piestion  of  the 
form  came  under  consideration.  Then  lie^an  the  work  of  the 
second  a<.;ent,  that  is,  the  Immediate  Commission.     We  have  seen 


i 


I 


'  1 

::.JS 

i  ] ,  1 

I 

*ll 


11 

If 


m 


ill! 

HI* 
till 


w 


-rr 


yo 


SKl.KcTIONS. 


(■ 


wlio  tlic  nun  wcic  fvom  whose  drlilirrations  the  hiw  einne  fmlh 
ch>lhe(i  in  I'urni.  lint  perhap--  the  (piestion  may  he  aski'd  which 
nieinhi  r.  or  nienihers.  ot'  tiie  C'linnnission  deseived  he>l  ol  the 
law  ;  and  thi>  (jnehtioii  can  uidv  l)e  answered  partially  and  douht- 
InlK  ,  mam  ot'  the  doeiinients  heini;'  missinLJ  in  the  archives.  We 
have  the  lact  that  Niehiihr  sepaiated  himsell'  deliherately  from 
his  colleau;nis  litcan^e  he  wonld  not  take  the  responsiiiility  ol' 
their  plans.  I'or  tiie  rest  we  ha\e  Sch(')n's  Riport.  ol"  whitdi  an 
iih.stract  has  heen  uivtn  ahove.  and  we  have  some  reminiscences 
of  Schiin.  which  were  written  d(»\vn  at  a  much  later  period  and 
not  pnhlished  till  i.>7^.  The  laltei-  indeed  i^ixe  us  many  state- 
ments, hut  we  are  eniharrassed  when  we  lind  that  their  diitl  is 
to  claim  the  whole  credit  ot"  the  ICdict  for  Sdnin.  It  seems 
hardlv  laii'  to  the  t/ther  memhers  of  the  C<.mmission  to  accept  a 
representation  which  is  made  at  tlu'ir  expense  and  pnhlished 
al'ter  theii-  death.  When  we  test  it  in  the  only  way  open  to  us, 
that  is.  li\-  compariii'^-  it  with  ScIkmi's  Rejiort.  which  for  what  it 
asserts  is  far  heller  testimonv.  we  lind  the  suspicioirs  dccidedU' 
St ren<4t hilled,   which   the   claim    itself  1)\-    its   exoihitant  and   ego- 


tistic character  siij^;^est.s. 


That  ScIkmi  deser\ed   a 


■reat  shai'i'  ot 


the  credit  we  are  iinite  prepared,  iVom  what  we  hear  ol'  the  in- 
(luence  he  exerted,  toheliexe;  nav,  after  a  reasonahle  deduction 
for  e\  ident  sell-conceit,  we  mij^ht  hewilliiii^  to  think  that  per- 
haps his  claim  to  have  heen  the  <i,uidinL.',  spirit  of  the  Commission 


was  snhstantialh'  well-lounded 


lint 


when   we  comiiare  his  late 


reminiscences  w  ith  hi.>  own  report  w  ritten  at  the  time,  as  well 
as  w  ilh  other  e\i(ience.  we-  disco\er  that  his  self-conceit  was  of 
an  unusual   intensit\ .  and  that  it  certainh'  clouded  and   corrupted 


lis    lememhrances. 


His  statement    is   not  morel v  exaa^efated 


it    is  certainlv   untrue,  and  i^ives  an   incorrect  impression  of  the 


nature  as  wc 


11 


)\   the  de'jrec  of  the  inthience  he  exerted. 


w 


e   ha\e   f^atheiei 


1   tr 


oni 


Xiehuhr's  hints  that  he   had  tVieinh 


on  the  Commission  who  apjilied  certain  iloctrinaire  theories  with 
a  coiisistencx  which  appalled  him,  and  in  tact  iVi^htencd  him 
away.  It  is  scarcelx'  po^sihlc  to  ilouht  who  is  ])ointed  at.  Sch<")n 
was   just  such  a  doctrinaire,  and  such  inexorahle   consistencv  was 


just  111  his  cliaracter.  w  iiile  iiotlimji^  similar  seeiiis  to  i)e  true  ot 
Altenstein  or  Stii'^emaiin.  It  seems  also  uiiquestionahle  what 
rii^oi'ous  rpplicatioiis    of  theorv  are  pointed   at 


Th 


e    introduc- 


tion of  free  trade   in   land  created  so  manifest   a   danger    of  the 
absorption  of  the  peasaiit-liuldings  by  the  rich,  that  it  was  found 


KM.\.\rii'Ari\(.  KDicr  or  sri;i.\. 


91 


l!l    till"  end  lU'Ci'ss;ii'\    to  pl'iitc'ft    tliosi-    luildin^s    l)\    ;i  s|Hi.-|;iI    Iiiill- 


tatioii. 


X 


iiw   till"   llu'oiA  ot    tiiT   tiaili-   was   i)riii^ii\   thai    \\ 


hii-li 


at   till'  nioiiu'iit    posscsscil   the    hraiis   ot'  tlir  l'riis>iaii    iloilrinalivs 


iiiidrr  till'  iiinueiirc  o 


)f  Krai 


Is. 


ami   it  \\ : 


)rt'iisrl\   that  < 


)I   WIlliM 


Si'Ik'hi    was    till'     iiiuiith-pii'i-f     on    tlic    Imiiu'diati'   C'oniinissioii. 


MMUS. 


sa\s  Schiiii    hiiiisr 


was   ni\   ^iwit  trarlur;    In-  iiias- 


liTi'd    iiiC  i'iiliri'l\,  ai 


id    I 


toii<iwrd    liiin    without    irscrw 


Tl 


le 


tlu'oiA'    was    s 


til 


iirw  .  that    it   IS   m 


.t    1 


l\'   that   thi 


1 


nissiaii 


li'L^islatois  I'oiild  have  adopted    it  \\ilh  such  I'oiiia^ioiis  coiiiplrtc- 
iii'ss  as  tlii'\   did  in  the  I^liiiaiieipatiiiL;'  I'^ihet  unless  thrie  had  heeii 

iil;ii- 


II  )se 


amoiiL;'  tliem  some  stron'4l\'  eoiniiiced  iVee-tradiT.  wl 
inents  were  liiard  at  tlii'  Imiiicdiate  Conimissioii.  ScIk'ui's  inllu- 
eiiee  is  iieeessat\  to  aceoniil  tor  the  result,  and  we  ean  lancv 
how  hard  and  ruthless  his  laiiL;'u:i,ue  must  sometimes  have  soundi'd, 
partienlaiK'  to  one  so  timid   1>\  temperament  ;is  Xieluihi 


\ 


lelxihr  s    I'Vidence    and 


the     nature     aiu 


mown    laets 


111  IS 


tiic 


case  concur  to  show  us 


Si 


h(")n   ;id\<icatiiiu"  with   a 


11 


ill 


us  iniuiencc 


ai 


id   with    more   eneii^x'  than  an\'  one  else,  that  part  ol"  the   Hilict 


which    introduces   iree   trade   i. 


laud. 


On   till'  other   hand  we  do  not  expi'Ct  to  l)e  told  that  ScluJn  hail 


iiiucli   muuence  in  (lecidm;4' 


lie  v._oiiiiiiissio 


11  to  I 


)roposi' 


till 


aho- 


liliDii    ot   sertdoni,    no 


t  1 


lecaiisc   he  did   not    feel    stron,L;I\'  (jii  the 
(|uestiou.  hut   iiecanse    tin  re   was   no   dillcreiice   ol"  o]')inion   ahout 


II 


OW   I 


lid 


we  III 


id    Hard 


eiiher^"   treatiUL;'   this  suhject 


aholition    ot"  serfdom,"    he   wrote,    ''must   he   decreed   1>\    a   1; 


lie 


w 


line 


am 


1  at 


once."  In  other  words,  it  is  a  matter  on  which 
arnumeiit  has  lonn'  l)een  exhausted.  That  this  was  reallv  the 
case,  that,  to  use  the  \igorous  words  ot" — what  writer.-  —  of 
Sch(")n    hiir.self :  — 

"'  The  u,ieat  niajoi"it\'  of  the  nation,  a  tew  weak  and  wicUeil 
persons  onlv  excepted,  have  lon^^  been  ai^reed  upon  the  priiici|)le 
that  there  is  no  greater  injustice  than  that  a  reasonahle  i)eiii<^ 
should  l)e  prevented  Irom  nsiui;"  his  energies  tor  his  own  weliare 
in  a  wav  not  prejudicial  to  the  State,  hy  a  rellow-subject,  simiily 
hecause  he  was  born  on  tliis  or  that  clod."  all  exidence  concurs 
to  show.      To  abolish  serfdom  had  been  a  faxorite  object  of  Fred- 


erick William   III.   si'ice  his  accessioi 


towards  which,"  as  he 


himself  said  in  his  Cabinet  Order  of  ^Vn^ust  2^(1,  '"•  he  h.ad  nu- 
de viatinii,ly  striven."  The  question  had  been  ag-itated  in  every 
way,  in  the  Estates  of  West  Prussia  as  early  as  1799,  in  writings 
hy  Kraus,  Leopold  Krug,  and  others  ;  Stein  himself,  as  has  been 


ill 


I*' 
Ir 


"'•II 

iiH 

'l)ia 


.:»'      ■! 


w 


92 


SKI.I'.t'lloNS. 


n'm.irki'd  iiliovc.  li.nl  lirni  Ihi'^n'  with  it  in  \\'rst|)li;iii:i.  A  <j;iti>'\ 
tinlidii  ot"  llir  ■_;i-iu'r;il  sliU'iif  pulilic  opiiiinii  oil  llir  siiliji'cl  in;i\ 
!>(.•  Inrinrd  iVnin  tlir  ti  illnw  in'^  sl;i1inuiit  ^ivt'ii  in  1  »,i^>i'\\  it/"> 
"■  Sl;iU'  i>r  till-  I\lri.'tni-;il  M:irk  of  lir.nnlriiliur'^  in   iS.if)":  — 

'•  'riimmli  tlir  |H':i-.:iiil .  nscd  to  I'ontinr.  li;i(l.  in  lii^  IrtlcTrd  cnw- 
(lilii)n.  liltir  indu-~ti\.  ;ind  did  not  \ct  iipprtH-inlc  tlir  ;id\  ;inl,;L;i.- 
A\!iitli  writ'  olll'it'd  liini  tor  tin.'  tulnir  in  ;i  pnl'citK  iVci'  pr()|)iit'- 
toisliip.  \ii  lu-  trlt  kcrnK  i'Mohl;Ii  tlir  prt-ssnic  oIiIk'  sc'1\  ici'-p;i\ - 
nirnts.  and  ot"  thi'  i'onipnlsor\  service-.  I'his.  and  tlu-  \  icw --  of 
till'  lights  oj'  man  that  \\  rir  dilln^rd  anion^"  tlir  people.  iTcatn  I 
;irnon;4  llie  pi'asantr\-  the  wish  to  he  nliexed  iVoni  their  services, 
from  thi'ir  (U-peiuK'nce  on  the  landlords,  and  tVoiu  the  conipidsor\ 
menial  ser\iee.  as  it  snhsisted  nnder  the  Servants  ()i(linanee 
(( iesinneordnnir^)  loi'  the  eonnti'v  districts  ot"  the  Mk'ctoial  Mark 
of  l'\'l).   1  I,   i^'x).  and  the  lali'r  inter|)ritali()ns  ot"  il." 

Now  what  startle-  ns  in  SchcHi's  remiinscences  and  I'xcites  thr 
suspicion  that  he  does  not  meridv  eNa^i^erati.'.  hut  (Klih'M'atelv 
distorts  and  misreprestail^  the  trntli,  is  this,  that  he  descrihi- 
liinisell'  as  having  carried  the  aholition  oj"  .-.erliloni  in  spite  ol 
general  opposition,  while  he  is  not  onl\  silent  ahout  his  e\ertio:i> 
in  the  cause  of  i"ree  trade,  luil  endiMVors  1)\-  studied  tuiirs  ot 
lanL,MaL;c'  to  con\e\'  the  impression  that  he  took  no  inli'rest  In 
that  i|Ui'stion.  What  curious  freak  ol  \anit\  can  have  actuated 
liim  we  can  onl\'  ^iiess  ;  1  sujipose  he  lhon;_;ht  the  n'loiA'  ot"  a 
liherator  ol"  hondsmen  more  desirahle  than  a  mciv  re])utati(>n  for 
eidi'^htened  \  iew  s  of  political  econoin\  .  It  is,  ho\ve\er.  thi-  i'aci 
that  he,  the  enthusiastic  disciple  ol'  Kiaus,  descrihes  one  of  the 
most  memorahle  triumphs  of  the  free  ti'ade  theorx'  in  such  a 
■wa\'  that  il  can  oulv  he  discovered  li"om  a  single  casual  expri's- 
sion  that  t'ree  traile  triumphed  at  all.  Meanwhile  he  descrilti-s 
his  zeal  for  the  abolition  of  serfdom  as  resemhlinL^-  that  of  ;i  mar- 
Ivr  or  a])ostK'.  and  has  a  |)athetic  ])icture  of  his  own  di'v  oteduL'ss. 
when,  as  he  was  en^a^ed  iii  composing"  his  report,  he  receiwd 
intelligence  that  his  \\  ife  was  at  the  j)oint  of  death,  if  he  would 
sec  her  ai^ain  alive  he  must  leave  his  work  and  hurry  to  her  side  ; 
but,  '•  though  deeply  aftlicted,  he  felt  he  must  not  betra\'  the  i;reat 
idea,  and  with  \iolent  self-masterv,  wrote  on  till  his  task  \\a> 
ended,  and  then  settinj^  out,  found  his  wife,  the  an^'el  that  ho\ - 
cred  over  him,  no  lon^■er  livir.'j^."  ^Vnd  he  repeats  several  tinu-- 
that  this  had  been  "'  his  sole  and  siiv^le  object  in  public  life,"  thai 
"  lie  had  tlesired  only  this,"  which  assertions  of  course  imply,  and 


KM  \\<ir.\ri\(i    I'.DK  I    n\-  sii;i\. 


93 


■.I't'ir.  iiiti^Mnlrd  Id  impK.  that  he  h;;(I  iuaci'  taki'ii  the  ^malK'st 
iDlcTc^t  ill  1:  IT  tra<K',  l",i|iiall\  strong  an-  his  as^ci  tinii'>  thai  the* 
ahulilioii  of  si'ii'doin  was  ()\\iii;4  [<>  his  dwii  I'll'urts.  'l'\\c  iri'urm 
is  (iL'sciihi^'d.  nut  as  oiir  ahmit  thr  ik'sirahU'iU'ss  ol'  whivh  all 
\\  rfc  a^Ti'LMl.  Mill  as  one  which  hail  Iimi;^'  hrrii  a^itatnl  and  dwv 
i.-\cvv  pait  i>i'  the  niiinari-h\.  whirli  tin.'  Ivin^-  had  al\\a\s  h.id  at 
heart,  and  the  ])easantr\  tlu'iii-i'K  es  wcii'  ea;_;eil\  limkin^'  t'T- 
wird  In.  luit  in  a  stiain  which  nii;_;ht  haw  suili'il  the  AlHiniinn  ol" 
the  Sla\e  Tiade  li\  C'larl.-nn  and  W  ilheil'oree.  It  i^  a  ^laud 
|)hilanlhiM])ie  idi'a  eon  ids fd  h\  a  tew  Kcini'^'sher^'  ])hiio>o|)hi'rs 
and  diihuscd  iVoin  tlnin  to  a  hand  ol"  iailhl'nl  disiiplc-,  hut 
ieniainin'4'  tor  a  \i>\\<j;  time  a  doetiine  prenliai'  to  the  I'lnssian 
pro\  iiue.  so  that  it  •■  sinaned  a  mere  hiain-eohwa'h  to  W  e-^tpha- 
liaiis  and  Nhirkers."  This  idra  he  personally  has  tin,'  '^Ioia  of 
lepresenliii^'  in  the  Immediate  Commission.  .Stii^emann  is  the 
first  ci)n\ert.  then  IJesnie  raises  himsell"  to  the  level  ol"  the  Idea, 
his  eoii\ersion  heini;"  helped  hv  the  anthorit\  of  another  Kiiiii^s- 
heri^i-'r.  Mor;4(.Mihesser ;  Klewil/,  is  the  last  to  eome  in.  While 
the  aholilion  ol"  serl'doni  reipiired  so  much  pieaehin;^',  the  doc- 
trines of  t'ree  ti'ade.  we  are  asked  to  helie\e,  were  received  as  a 
matter  of  eour.se.  lint  in  the  moment  of  his  triumph  this  I'liis- 
sian  W'ilherloree  sank  doA'u  exhausted;  no  sioiicr  was  the  strii'^- 
^le  oxer  than  the  sense  of  his  hereavement  overcame  him. 
AccordinL;l\'  he  could  not  (IrauL^ht  the  law.  —  here  at  least  is  an 
important  statement.  — and  Sta;4emann.  •■  failld'ul  companion  on 
the  i^reat  journey,"  undertook  tliis  task.  "'All  else  that  I  have 
(lone  in  the  world  is  nothing;'  eom[)aretl  to  callin<;f  into  life  tlic 
idea  of  freedom."  >\nd  this  hynni  to  himself  .Scln'in  introduces 
with  the  mock-modest  heading,  ll/tai  did  I  do?  yh/szccr: 
Xot/i/i/g-  zcort/i  spcaki/ii;-  of. 

'Jdie  report  which  cost  .ScIk'hi  such  "  violent  self-mastery"  is 
iiosv  before  us,  and.  we  cannot  read  it  without  leelin;^  that  the 
Frau  V.  Schon  was  somew  hat  hardlv  used.  It  is  from  this  very 
report  that  I  have  just  extracted  the  statement,  that  ''  the  i^reat 
niajoritv  of  the  nation  had  long  been  aj^reed  on  the  ]irineiple  of 
the  abolition  of  serfdom."  So  far  from  ari^uin*^  strongly  and 
eloquently  against  serfdom,  so  far  from  ilirecting  his  arguuKTit 
principally  to  this  point,  he  puts  serfdom  hist  among  six  eau-^es 
to  which  he  refers  the  impoverishment  of  the  country.  He 
does  indeed  describe  it  as  the  most  important  of  the  six,  but  he 
refrains  from  treating  it  with   the    same    fulness   as   the  others, 


M-:! 


J1 


Hm 

IjUtt'     'I 
,rtii(,. 

lir 


"■All' 


um 


f 


<•"» 


^^^ 


ill! 


94 


SKI.KCTIONS. 


bci'.liisc.  ;i^  lu'  >^;i\s,  '"(Hi  tlu-  lU'Ci'ssiU'  ;inil  ^;itVl\-  of  ;i!i'iIi>lilM'^  it 
\'iiiir  M;iii-'l\  li;i>  Iic;ii(l  so  iiiiu'li  tli;il  it  wouM  liri'  \(ui  to  Irmi 
iiiori'."  And  in  tlir  short  prcl'.icL'  wliiili  lir  li.is  pii'llxfil  to  tli( 
Report    Ik'   s;i\s  cxprrsslN' :  — 

'•  This  nialliT  ( /.  r..  tin-  aliolition  o|"  siTl'doin)  IkkI  oi'i'npicd 
:dl  ;4oo(l  lit;ids  :md  lii-aits  ill  l'iii-<si;i  iikiiiv  nimis  hi'l'orc  the  war. 
Till'  Miinilii'r  of  iliosi'  \\  lid  wx'ic  sla\  isliU  disposr<l  was  small,  Iml 
l\\r\  w  tic   pow  c'l  lid," 

At  till'  saiiii'  tinu-  it  n'tnlcs  llir  rt'n)inisci'Mi.Ts  not  less  i-om- 
pK'trK  on  thr  siilijicl  o|'  \'\\'c  tiadr  in  land.  It  shows,  as  we 
shoidd  I'spi'it,  that  StlKMi's  mind  is  liill\'  oiciipicwl  with  thi> 
(|iK'stioii,  and  that  he  ,L;i\i.'s  it  pieci'deiu  r  o\i'i'  the  (pieslioii  ol"  the 
aliolitioii  ol'  serfdom.  We  liiid  in  thi'-  repoit  iiisl  those  hai'd 
and  criiel-soiindinLj  statements  of  eeonomic  prinelple  whirli 
Nieiuihr  had  led  us  to  expect.  We  liiu!  him  attaekin'4  as  a 
iuischie\t)us  prejudice  tlie  accepte(l  rule  that  the  nuinher  of  peas- 
aut-lioldiiv^s  on  an  estate  should  iu'\i'r  he  diminished,  and  (k'clar- 
inu;  that  '•  there  is  no  ix-ason  \vh\  the  land-ow  ner  should  not  haxc 
an  unlimited  ri'^ht  to  dispose  at  ])leasure  of  his  land  and  soil."  and 
that,  '"  as  a  mailer  of  fact  it  would  he  found  impossihle  to  kt'ep  up 
as  mam  peasaiit-holdinL!,'s  as  hetore  the  war,"  and  tlnowii.'^  out 
hard  assertions  that  ••  the  jj^overnment  can  never  have  an  inleresi 
in  securing;  A  or  !>  in  the  possession  of  his  [)r()perty."  ' 

It  is.  howexxT,  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Stein's  reputation  is 
ill  an\'  \va\-  concerned  in  the  cpiestioii  of  the  Irustwoithiness  of 
Schi'm's  account.  ScIuhi's  sphere  was  the  liuniediate  Commis- 
sion, while  Stein's  sphere  was  altoL;"ether  outside  it.  What 
ScIk'hi  has  snatched  at  is  not  any  reputation  belonifiu^^  to  Stein, 
but  that  whicli  ou^ht  to  fall  to  his  coUeafjjiies,  Stii^eniaiin. 
Klewit/.  and  in  some  dei^ree  also  Altenstein  and  Xiehuhr.  An 
achievement  which  otlicialh'  belonged  to  the  whole  Commission 
joiutU'  he  has  tried  to  appropriate  in  the  main  to  himselt'.  F<;r- 
tunatelv  evidence  enoUL;h  remains  to  defeat  this  attem[:)t,  and  to 
show  that  the  onI\-  statement  in  his  whole  narrative  wdiich  we 
can  safely  accept  is  the  statement  that  the  draug'htinj^  of  the 
Edict  was  the  work  of  Stiigeniaini.     As  to  Stein,  his  share  in  the 


'  I  have  ciirtTiilIy  avoiili'd  dopLiuliiii^  upon  the  narrative  )4ivc'ii  in  Pert/,  of  tlie  ])arty- 
coiitc'st  at  the  linnK<liatL' C'iMninissi<in,  uliicli  I  agrt'u  witli  llic  anoiiyninus  auUior  of  " /ii 
Scliiit/.  iiiul 'rnit.c  .ini  (iralu' Stiilins  "  in  rcgardint;' as  soiiu'what  leyuiKlary.  1  trust  I  Iiavc 
inad(.'  it  apjicar  that  tlic  statiancnts  of  Scliiiirs  Autobioi;ra|)liy  can  lie  disproved  witlumt 
assuMiinir  the  trntli  of  a  narrative  e(iually  unsatisfaclory  that  lias  untortunately  crept  into 
I'crt/,,  and  in  any  case  that  Stein  is  not  at  all  concerned  in  the  controversy. 


i:ma\(  ii'Ai  INC  i;i>i(  r  oi    >i  i;i\. 


95 


l):irtv- 


Itllollt 

iiiU) 


;icliit'\(.'nu'lll  is  ;ill(»^rllii'i'  ili^liiut  IVmiii  that  of  t  lie  C' imiiii^'-ioii, 
;inil.  tliiTi'l'i  lie.  liDin  that  mI"  aii\  mmilirr  ot  thi'  t 'i  Mimil-'-ii  m.  It 
is  Id  hi-  ili\i(k'il  inid  two  parts,  dt'  which  the  diu-  I'an  l>r  \)\v- 
cisrlv  statnl.  and  thi'dthci"  Is  (■s-<i'iit  iall\  iiidrliiiaMi',  ihoir^h  nut. 
nL'Cc'ssai"il\'  the  sinalKr  dii  that  aiTdiint. 

'I'hr  liisl  i.-diisis|s  ill  ;m\  ahiTations  ln'  ma\'  ha\i'  iiiaiK'  in  the 
lvli>  t  alU'f  i!  w  is  laid  hi'ldi\'  him.  (  )l'  thrM.'thi'  principal  was 
llic  r\l(iisidii  d|'  ihr  l'".(h(t  td  all  the  pros  iiurs  oj'  thr  nidiiaudiw 
That  the  (.ML'tlil  df  this  hiddii'^s  to  Striii  w  r  thid  Srh'Mi  him-rll'. 
wild,  w  luai  lu'  widtf  his  .\iitd|pio^rapli\-,  had  j'jrnu'il  thr  liahit 
dl'  (Irin  iii'4  him  all  sharr  in  tlu'  ICdict  hcNomi  that  ol"  putting'  his 
naiiK'tdit.  I'lillx  acUiidw  Icdnin;^  whiU'  tin.-  fails  wrir  still  iVrsh 
ill  iiK'Hidiv  .  Ill  a  diai\  writlrn  ahoiit  tlu'  tiinr  dl'  SU'in"^  tall 
Sohi'in  wiitrs  ol  him:  ••  lie  iiiadt-  his  Jchnt  with  thr  Mdirt  dt' 
Ootdhi'i'.  wliit'h  hr  Idinid  rcadx',  and  \\hii.di  it  Is  his  iiu  ill  diiK'  to 
lia\c'  uiadr  iiiii\  (.'isal.  IJi'sidos  this,  as  we  ha\c  sci'ii,  tlu-  Iiudr- 
|)drati()n  ot'  Sta'^cinann's  su'^j^i-stidii  iiild  .\rt.  (>  is  (hu'  td  Stein. 

I'iit  il  is  stianL;i.'l\'  jx-'rvrrsc  td  llniit  Stein's  share  In  tlu'  Indict 
to  thdse  alteratidiis  in  the  text  dl"  it  whieh  aix-  known  Id  1h'  due 
to  him.  It.  is  not  thus  that  the  nuTit  dt'  an  act  ol  legislation 
dii^ht  t(»  he.  or  eonimonlv  Is.  awarded.  \\  hiai  Lord  (iri'\-  is 
called  the  author  ot'  the  KeI'dnn  15111.  is  it  intended  that  he  Ihst 
thoni^ht  of  ri'lonnini;-  1';  "lament,  or  that  he  de\  ised  and  dran'.dited 
all  or  most  dl"  the  prdxdsldiis  of  the  liIU.-  IMaiiiU'  his  title  to  the 
achie\emeiit  would  he  entlri'K'  unall'eeted  it"  il  Cduld  he  shdwn 
that  no  siiiL^le  word  ot"  the  hill  was  sn;4'4ested  or  delerinliu'd  hv 
him.  It  Is  not  draui^hlini;-  a  hill,  hnl  passing;-  It.  that  is  the 
dillieultw  What  we  say  of  Lord  (irey  Is  that  he  gained  that 
ascendencv  botii  in  his  own  partv  and  in  the  nation  1)\  the  hel^^ht 
•M\(\  linniiess  of  his  character,  th.at  he  was  ahle  to  !..^uI(K'  them 
safelv  throu;^h  a  le<^islati\e  enterprise  whieh.  with  an  Infeilor 
leai'cr,  thev  would  either  have  feared  to  attempt,  or.  in  atlempt- 
in!4,  would  have  stumhled  into  revolution  ami  civil  hloodshed. 
W  hen  we  call  the  Edict  of  Octoher  .Stein's  ICdict  we  mean  soine- 
tliini^  similar.  But  it  may  be  thouj^ht  that  the  cases  were  not 
parallel,  because  in  Prussia  there  was  no  parliament  to  l;'.  .'.c.  no 
turbulent  public  opinion  t(j  control.  And.  Indeed.  L  imagine  that 
no  one  would  pretend  to  equal  this  single  act  of  .Stein's  to  the 
passin<^  of  the  Reform  J3ill.  Still,  between  the  drauj^htln.!^  of  the 
Emancipatin<i[  Edict  and  the  makin<^  it  law  in  Prussia  there  was 
a  space  to  be  traversed,  though  not  so  wide  a  space  as  that  over 


\{\ 


! ,  -.' 


[Miil 


I  (' 


w^ 


96 


si;i.i:c"ri()NS. 


fill*  f.'ll 


» 


which  T.ord  (ivv\  c:\yv\cd  thr  Kil'orni  Ilill.  Xol  ;i  parnaiiicnl or 
:i  |)i'i)|)K'.  hut  oiruiaU  ami  ihi.'  Ivini^'.  had  Id  hi-  inspired  \\  ith.  (.'lUir- 
a^T.  Ni)  iKiisx'  parhann.-n1ar\'  opposition  iiidrcd.  hut  tiiiacioiis 
iiiti'fi'sls  i'\ciH'(hiii;'l\'  stroiin'  in  the  court  and  iu  the  arni\  iiad  to 
I)r  dciicd.  When  1  lai'denheri^j^  and  Ahenslein  and  the  (."oni- 
inissiou  recoiinuiiided  these  lefornis.  {\\v\  chd  so  with  the  knowl- 
edL^e  that  Stein  was  al  hand  to  can\  them  out.  Wduid  they 
ha\c'  made  the  saiui-  suL^L^'i'stious  it'  N'oss  or  Schulenl>ni  l;'  or 
Strueusei'  had  heeii  at  llie  heaii  ol'  allaiis:  1  Iai<lenherL;'s  recom- 
mendations proci'ed  a\d\vedl\'  u|)on  the  assumption  that  v^tein  is 
to  111'  minister,  and  we  caimot  e\en  he  sure  that  he  would  him- 
sell'  ha\e  had  courage  to  atti'Uipt  what  hel'elt  sure  Slein  would 
not  shrink  tVom.  Alueh  more  ma\  w c  douht  whiiln'i'  the  Uin^- 
would  ha\i'  home  the  weight  of  such  responsihilil\-  unsu[)[)oite(l, 
or  supported   onl\  h\'  a  common    minister. 

in  one  woiil.  we  must  not  contoimd  the  retormiuL;'  legislator 
with  tlu'  jurist  and  parliamentarv  drauL;hlsmai;.  It  is  not  inven- 
tiveiu'ss,  or  (iriL;inalit\'.  or  technical  skill,  ih  it  we  honor  in  those 
who  \\A\v  ])resided  o\er  the  li  ansilions  ol'  States.  It  is  chietlv 
the  massi\e  couia^e  that  mo\  es  iVeelv  under  responsihilit\'  and 
lightens  the  hurden  ol"  responsihilit\'  to  all  around  ;  it  is  the 
'^  ^\tlantean  shoulders." 

On  these  principles  wc  ouj^ht  perhaps  to  rei^ard  the  rapidity 
\vith  \yhich  Stein  hurried  the  reform  through  as  an  essential  and 
principal  part  of  the  rel'orm  itself,  it  was  most  mateiial  that  the 
nation  should  teel  the  stay  antl  s\ya\'  of  a  poweri'ul  hand.  Stein 
alwa\s  acted  with  an  almost  Xapolcoiiic  sw  il'tness,  hut  in  this 
instance  we  are  particularly  struck  with  his  piomptitude.  It  was 
perhajis  rather  instinctiyc  than  calculated,  ami  yet  he  may  liuye 
been  aware  of  the  importance  of  justilVinq;  without  a  moment's 
delay  the  i;re;it  expectations  that  had  been  formed  of  him,  lie 
receiyes  his  powers  on  ()ctol)er  4th.  and  on  the  9th  the  most 
comprehensiyc  measure  eyer  passed  in  i'russia,  atVectini;-  cyery 
class  and  the  \yb.ole  framework  of  society,  ai^pears,  not  as  a  pro- 
posal, but  as  an  accomplishetl  act  with  the  king's  signature,  as 
a  part  of  the  law  of  the  country. 


mei 


Iff 


^  i 


lilv 


UHl 


lie 


■in 
this 


;is 


five 
Li's 


l)St 


|it)- 
iis 


TIIK    OKDKKS    IN    COlNCir, 


97 


VI. 


THE   ORDKR-S    IN    COlNCir.. 

From  Levi's  IIistoky  or  IJkitisii  Commiciu  !■:   (jd  kd),   rr.   loi-ijo. 

'rill-:  political  lioii/.oii  was  omiiiouslx-  (larUeiiiiiu^  at  the  coin- 
mcncenu'iit  of  the  iiineteentli  centiirv.  Whilst  'L;i'ie\()iisl\  siitl'er- 
in<f  tVoni  the  hi<4h  prices  ot"  corn  ami  provisions,  and  oppressed 
1)V  the  hurdeii  of  a  contest  already  suillcientlv  [irolon^ed.  ICnLjland 
was  threatened  hv  the  renewal  of  anotlier  armed  neu(ralit\  on  the 
part  of  the  Northern  powers,  —  a  neutrality  based  on  a  n(.'\v  code 
of  maritime  law,  then  deemed  utterly  inconsistent  witli  the  riL^^iits 
of  this  country.  The  Northern  powers  wished  to  proclaim  tiiat 
free  ships  should  make  free  <i^oods  ;  but  I'hi^land  was  determined 
that  tiie  trade  of  the  enemy  should  not  be  carried  on  by  neutrals. 
The  Northern  powers  asserted  that  onh'  contraband  j^oods  should 
be  excluded  frt)m  the  trade  of  neutials,  and  these  ol'  certain  defi- 
nite and  known  articles.  ICn^land  did  not  wish  (lie  enenu'  to 
obtain  tinilu'r.  hemp,  and  other  articles,  whicli,  though  not  con- 
traband of  war,  are  still  essential  for  warfare.  The  Northern 
])owers  declared  that  no  blockade  should  be  held  valitl  uidess 
real.  l-^u'^land  had  already  assumed  tiie  ri^ht  to  treat  whole 
coasts  as  blockaded,  in  order  to  prevent  the  eneni\-  receivin*^  sup- 
j)lies  from  anv  quarter.  And  when  the  Northein  powers  added 
that  a  merchant  vessel  accompanied  and  protected  by  a  belli;4erent 
ship  ou<^ht  to  be  safe  fn,>m  the  riij^ht  of  search,  ICnj^land  was  not 
jirepared  to  reco;^ni/e  the  authority  of  such  s!iij)s,  and  would 
place  no  limit  to  the  action  of  her  crniseis.  W'iien.  therefore, 
Russia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  entered  into  a  con\ention  to 
enforce  the  principles  of  the  armed  neutralilv.  antl,  in  pursuance 
of  the  same,  Russia  caused  an  embar<;o  to  lie  laid  on  all  British 
vessels  in  her  ports,  the  Hritish  (Jovernment,  ill-disposed  to  bear 
with  such  provocation,  issued  a  proclamation  on  Jan.  iq,  1801, 
authorizinjj^  reprisals,  and  laying  an  cmbar<:;()  on  all  Russian, 
Swedish,  and  Danish  vessels  in  British  ports.  What  followed  is 
well  known,  and  with  the  battle  of  Copenhagen  the  Northern 
confederacv  was  completely  dissolved,  liy  this  time  Mr.  Pitt  had 
gi\en  in  his  resignation,  and  a  change  of  government  took  place, 


'm 


illC 


x-\'* 


'-i 


NPP 


98 


SELKCTIOXS. 


i' 


'ill! 


which  led  to  a  clianj^fc  of  policy  towards  France,  and  to  nc<2^otia- 
tions  which  ended  with  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Amiens.' 

Hut,  alas  I  frf)in  whatever  cause  it  was.  that  peace  was  of  short 
durati(jn,  and,  more  than  ever,  tlie  patriotic  spirit  of  the  people 
was  evoked  to  defend  IJritish  soil  against  liritain's  inveterate 
enemies.'^  From  class  to  class  the  national  enthusiasm  spread 
and  increased,  and  even  the  merchants,  settin":  aside  their  books 


(11 


uul  business,  issued  a  dec 


larat 


ion, 


pr 


omism'jf,  ni  a  solemn  maimer 


to  use  every  exertiijii  t(;  rouse  the  spirit  and  to  assist  tlie  resources 
f  tiie  kiuifdom  ;  to  jc  readv  with  their  services  of  everv  sort  and 


o 


o 


n  ever\  (^casicn  m  its  defence  ;  and  rather  to  perish  alto<^ether 
than  live  to  see  the  honor  of  tlie  liritish  name  tarnisiied,  or  tliat 
sublime  inheritance  of  <rreatness,  glory,  and  liberty  destroyed, 
which  descended  to  them  from  their  forefathers,  aiui  which  they 
were  determined  to  transmit  to  tlieir  posterity.  Again  was  Mr. 
Pitt  called  to  be  prime  minister,  as  the  only  man  who  could  reallv 
be  trusted  in  times  of  so  mucii  anxiety  and  peril.  And  then  it 
was  that  that  continental  system  was  inaugurated,  which  made  of 
oceans  and  seas  one  vast  battlelicld  of  strife  and  bloodshed. 

FuUv  to  miderstand  the  policv  of  this  countrv  as  re'jards  these 
orilers  in  council,  we  must  briefly  retrace  our  steps,  bv  examining 
the  measures  taken  in  previous  wars.  During  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  which  ended  in  1763,  France  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by 
England,  and  hindered  by  the  IJritish  naval  force  from  carrying 
on  anv  trade  with  her  West  India  colonies,  adopted  the  plan  ot 
relaxing  her  colonial  monopoly,  and  allowing  neutral  ships  to 
carry  the  produce  of  those  islands  to  French  or  foreign  ports  in 
Europe.  The  produce  being  thus  carried  really  or  ostensibly  on 
neutral  accoimt.  it  was  assumed  that  no  danger  of  capture  could 
be  incurred.  Hut  the  prize  courts  of  England  condemned  such 
vessels  as  were  captured  while  engaged  in  the  trade,  and  the  rule 
was  then  adopted,  called  the  rule  of  1756,^  that  a  neutral  has  no 


'  Peace  was  ratified  on  October  lo,  iSoi ;  and  the  treaty  of  Amiens  was  concluded  March 
/S,  1S02. 

*  On  May  i6,  ifc^.an  order  in  council  was  made,  issiiinjr  Jettcrs  of  marque  and  reprisals 
against  France,  and  another  laying  an  embargo  on  all  ships  belonging  to  the  French  and 
Itatavian  republics.  Ileprisals  against  Spain  were  ordered  December  19,  1805;  against 
Prussia  on  May  14,  1S06;  and  against  Russia  on  December  18,  1S07. 

^  The  rule  of  1756  had  been  acted  upon  even  by  F' ranee  on  previous  occasions.  See  Note 
I,  On  the  practice  of  the  Hrilish  Prize  Courts  with  regard  to  the  Colonial  trade  of  the  Enemy 
during  the  American  War,  in  6  Itob.  Kep.  App. ;  and  Considi'rolioiis  stir  I' AJm fusion  des 
Navires  nfiitres  aux  Colonies  fi-ani;oises  de  l^Ameriqiie  ens  Terns  de  Guerre, yi.  13,  i77Q;an<l 
see  the  Wilhelmina,  4  Kob.  H  jp.,  p.  4;  and  the  Inirnanuel  Tudor.  —  Leading  cases  of  mer- 
cantile war,  p.  814. 


THE   ORDERS    IN    COIXCIL. 


99 


iile 
Ino 

krch 

lals 
Lmd 
liiist 

lote 

lies 
1:1  lul 
lier- 


rijjjht  to  deliver  a  belligerent  from  the  pressure  of  liis  eiieiiiv's 
iiostilities  by  tradiiif^  with  his  colonies  in  time  of  war  in  a  way 
that  was  prohibited  in  time  of  peace.  As  .Sir  William  Scott  said, 
•'The  f^eneral  rule  is,  that  the  neutral  has  a  riijht  to  carrv  on  in 
time  of  war  his  accustomed  trade  to  the  utmost  extent  of  which 
that  accustomed  trade  is  capable.  \'ery  dillerent  is  the  case  of  a 
trade  vvhicli  the  neutral  has  never  possessed  ;  which  he  JK^lds  by 
no  title  of  use  and  habit  in  time  of  j^eace  ;  ami  which,  in  fact,  he 
can  obtain  in  war  by  no  other  title  than  by  the  success  of  the  one 
belligerent  against  the  other,  and  at  tiie  expense  of  that  very  bellig- 
erent under  whose  success  he  sets  up  his  title."  Duriu;^  the 
American  war  this  principle  did  not  come  practically  into  action, 
because,  althouj^h  then  also  the  French  j^o\ernmcnt  opened  the 
ports  of  her  West  India  islands  to  the  ships  ot  neutral  ])owers,  it 
had  the  wisdom  to  do  so  before  hostilities  were  ci^mmenced,  and 
not  after. 

In  accordance  with  these  principles,  when  the  war  of  the 
French  Revolution  commenced,  instiuctions  were  ^iven,  on 
Nov.  6,  179.^'  ^^  t'^'^  commanders  of  British  ships  of  war 
and  privateers,  ordering  them  "  to  stop  and  dtJt'dn  for  lawful 
adjudication  all  vessels  laden  with  goods,  the  produce  of  any 
French  colony,  or  carrying  provisions  or  othei"  supidies  tor  the 
use  of  any  such  colony."  And  this  order  was  the  more  necessary 
from  the  fact  that  American  ships  were  crowding  the  ports  of  the 
French  West  Indies,  where  the  Hag  of  the  United  .States  was 
made  to  protect  tlie  property  of  the  French  planters.  Great 
nimibers  of  ships  under  American  colors  were  thus  taken  in  the 
West  Indies  and  condemned,  the  tVaudulent  pretences  of  neutral 
property  in  the  cargoes  being  too  gross  to  be  misunderstood. 
Complaints  were,  however,  made  of  the  hardship  of  this  practice 
on  the  boud-jide  American  trader,  and  in  January,  1794,  the 
instructions  were  so  far  amended  that  the  direction  was  to  seize 
''  such  vessels  as  were  laden  with  goods  the  produce  of  tiie 
French  W' est  India  Islands,  and  coming  directly  from  any  ports 
of  the  said  islands  to  Europe.*'  This  rule  ccmtinued  in  torce 
till  1798,  when  again  it  was  relaxed,  by  ordering  that  vessels 
should  be  seized  "laden  with  the  produce  of  any  island  or  settle- 
ment of  France,  Spain,  or  Holland,  and  coming  directly  from 
any  port  of  the  said  island  or  settlement  to  any  port  in  Europe, 
not  being  a  port  of  this  kingdom,  or  of  the  country  to  which  the 
vessel,  being  neutral,  should  belong."     European  neutrals  were 


I 


:;:' 


4;  I  I 


1*1  J  11*1 5' ' 
It**'" 


\% 


1 


#1; 
■I  "■■ 


■xm 


lOO 


SKf.KCriONS. 


{■ 


thus  p.'iinitli.'(l  to  livinLj  tlu*  produce  of  the  hostile  colonies  from 
theiRe  to  ports  oi'  their  own  countries  ;  mikI  l'.iuope;m  or  American 
neutral  shi|;s  nii-^ht  carry  such  produce  direct  to  ICni^laiid.  But 
wiien  the  war  was  resumed  in  iS()'^,the  ride  o!"  i  79S  was  a^^ain 
put  in  ioice,  and  instructions  were  j^iNeii  "  not  to  sei/i'  anv 
neutral  \essels  which  should  he  found  carryinj^  on  trade  directly 
between  the  colonies  of  the  enemv  and  the  nential  country  to 
which  the  vessel  helonj^ed,  and  laden  with  propeit\-  of  the  in- 
hahitants  oi'  such  neutral  country,  provided  that  such  neutral 
vessel  should  not  he  sn|)[)lvin<j^,  nor  should  ha\e  on  the  outward 
vovaj^e  supplied,  the  enem\'  with  anv  articles  of  contrahantl  of 
war,  and  slu>uld  not  he  tradin<i^  with  any  hlocUadedports." 

[\\  thus  allowiniLj.  however,  neutrals  to  tiade  sately  to  and  from 
neutral  jiorls,  means  were  opened  to  them  to  clear  out  lor  u  neutral 
port,  and  under  cover  of  that  j^retended  destination  to  make  a 
(hrect  \■o\a^■e  from  the  colon\'  to  the  parent  state,  oi'  reallv  to 
proceed  to  some  neutral  country,  and  thence  ree\|)ort  the  cargo 
in  the  same  or  a  dilVerent  bottom  to  whichever  ICuropean  market, 
tieutral  or  hostile,  thev  miiiht  prefer.  The  former,  on  an  assumed 
vovaiL^e  to  the  parent  '^tate,  bein<;"  the  shortest  and  most  convenient 
method,  was  chieib'  adoptetl  by  the  Dutch  on  their  homeward 
voyages,  because  a  pretended  destination  tor  Prussian,  Swedish, 
or  Danish  ports  in  the  Xoith  .Sea,  or  the  Haltic,  was  a  plausible 
mask,  even  in  the  very  closest  approach  the  shi[)  might  make  to 
the  Dutch  coast  down  to  the  moment  of  her  slipping  into  p(Mt. 
The  latter  method,  or  the  stopping  at  an  intermediate  neutral 
country,  was  commonly  preferred  by  the  .Spaniards  and  French 
in  bringing  home  their  colonial  produce,  because  no  pretended 
neutral  destination  could  be  given  that  would  consist  with  the 
geographical  position  and  course  of  a  ship  coming  directly  from 
the  West  Indies,  if  met  with  near  the  end  of  her  voyage  in  the 
latituile  of  their  principal  ports.  The  American  (lag  in  particular 
was  a  cover  that  could  scarcely  ever  be  adapted  to  the  former 
nictliod  of  eluding  our  hostilities,  but  it  \vas  found  jieculiarly 
convenient  in  the  latter.  Such  is  the  position  of  the  Unitetl 
States,  and  such  was  the  etlect  of  the  trade-w  inds,  that  European 
vessels,  homeward  bound  from  the  West  Indies,  could  touch  at 
their  i)orts  with  very  little  inconvenience  or  delay  ;  and  such  was 
also  the  case,  though  in  a  less  degree,  with  regard  to  vessels 
coming  from  the  remotest  parts  of  South  America  or  the  East 
Indies.     The  passage  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  especially,  runs 


thi 


TIIK    OKDKRS    IN    COUXCIF, 


I0[ 


so  clf)St' iiloivj^- tlif  Xorlh  Anu-riciin  shore  tliat  ships  hound  from 
the  1  l.'ivauMah.  iVom  Vera  Ciu/,  and  other  L,neat  .Spaiiisli  ports 
honli-riiiLf  on  lliat  .'niilt',  to  lCui"ope,  coiihl  toucii  at  certain  i>orts  in 


the   I'niteil   Stales  with   scaicelv  anv  deviation.      On   an    ontwa 


rd 


vova'jfe  to  the  ICast  and  West  Iiuhes  the  pioper  eonise  wouhl  he 
more  to  the  southward  tiian  would  well  consist  with   touchin;^-  on 


Noith  ^AnuT 


ic, 


yi't  the  de\iation  lor  that  puipose  was  not  a  very 


rormi<lahle    incon\  iiiiiaice. 


!• 


lorn    tiu'se    cause's    the 


protection 


;iven    hv    the    American    tlai;"    to    the    intercourse     hetween    our 


!•: 


I  MO) 


'(can   enemies  anc 


1  tl 


leir  colonies  w':is  cnu 


ih 


m 


tl 


le  wav  ot 


a  double  \()\a'. 


ill   which   America  was   the   lialt'-wa\'  house   or 
central   i")oint   of"  communication.      The   I'ahrics  and  commodities 


df  F 


ranct'.  Spain,  and 


II< 


and   were    hrou-'ht    under 


A 


mericaii 


colors  to  ports  in  the  I'nited  States,  and  iVom  thence  reexported, 
under  the  same  llaL;",  lor  the  supplv  of  the  hostile  colonies. 
A^ain.  the  produce  of  these  colonies  was  hi'ouL^ht  in  a  like  man- 
ner to  the  .American  ports,  and  thence  reshipped  to  ICurope. 
But  tiie  Americans  wc.'iit  still  farther.  The  ports  of  this  kiii!L;(lom 
havin;j^  heen  constituted,  hy  the  royal  instructions  of  179S,  lei^iti- 
mate    places    of  destination    for  neutrals  coniin;^-  with  cargoes  of 


pr 


)duce    directl\'  from    the    hostile   colonies,  the    American   mer- 


chants made  a  pretrnded  destination  to  Uritish  ports  a  convenient 
cover  for  a  vova^j^c  from  the  hostile  colonies  to  I'^urope,  which 
their  ihvj;  could  not  otherwise  ^^ive,  and  thus  rivalled  the  neutrals 
of  the  old  world  in  this  method  of  protecting'  the  West  India 
trade  of  the  enenn  ,  while  thev   nearlv  engrossed  the  other.      As 


tl 


le  w 


ar  advanced,   after   the   Peace  ol   Amiens,  the  neutrals   he- 


came 


holdc 


er  and    more   ai^j^ressive 


A 


merican  ships  were    con- 


stantly arriving"  at  Dutch  and  French  ports  with  su<i;ar.  colVee, 
and  other  productions  of  the  French  and  .Spanish  West  Indies. 
And  East   India   i;oods  were  imported  hy  them   inU)  S])ain,  Hol- 


land, 


aiu 


1   I' 


ranee. 


By  these  and  other  means,  IIanihur<>h,  Altona,  Emden,  Got- 
tenburi^h,  Copenhai^^en,  Lisbon,  and  (>ther  neutral  markets  were 
<4"lutted  wit'i  the  produce  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  fabrics  of  the 
East,  brought  from  the  jirosperous  colonies  of  powers  hostile  to 
this  countrv.  Bv  the  rivers  and  canals  of  (jermanv  and  IManders 
these  were  floated  into  the  warehouses  (if  the  enemy,  or  circulated 
for  the  supply  of  his  customers  in  neutral  countries.  He  rivalled 
the  British  planter  and  merchant  throughout  the  continent  of 
Europe,  aiul   in   all  ports  of  the   Mediterranean,  and  even  sup- 


;? 


»in|||f 


Ir 


■m 


111; 


I 


i 


lo: 


SELl-XTIOXS. 


if 


planted  tlio  niamifnctiircrs  of  MaiichesttM-,  ninninti[liaiii.  ami 
Yorkshire  ;  and  In  tliese  means  tiie  hostile  colonies  derived 
henelit,  and  not  inconvenience,  iVoni  tiie  enniitv  of  Great  Britain. 


\\ 


Kit.  nioreoxer.  esi)eciallv  nijured  tlie  commerce  or  tins  coimtr\ 


)f  th 


was  the  increase  in  tlie  cost  of  im|)ortation  into  this  countrv  tVoni 
the  l>ritisli  colonies,  from  frei:^ht,  insurance,  and  other  charges, 
which,  taken  to.Ljether,  were  as  mucii  as.  if  not  superior  to,  those 
to  whicli  the  enemv  was  sulijected  in  his  covert  and  circuitous 
trade.  It  ,\vas  a  <j;eneral  complaint,  therefore,  that  the  enemy 
canied  on  colonial  commerce  under  the  neutral  llaij  clieaj^ly,  as 
well  as  safel\-  ;  that  he  was  enal)lc(l  not  oidy  to  elude  our  hostiu- 
ties,  luit  to  ii\al  our  merchants  and  planters  in  the  ICuropean 
markets;  that  hv  the  same  means  the  hostile  treasuries  were 
filled  with  a  copious  stream  of  revenue  ;  and  that  by  this  licen- 
tious use  of  the  neutral  llaij,  the  enemv  was  enal>led  to  emplov  ids 
whole  militarv  marine  in  purposes  of  oilensivc  war,  without  heiniLj 
ol)liii;ed  to  maintain  a  scpiadron  or  a  ship  t'or  the  defence  of  their 
colonial  ports.  It  was,  moreover,  contended  that,  since  neutral 
states  have  no  rii;ht,  hut  throu>;ii  our  own  >;ratuitous  concession, 
to  carrv  on  the  colonial  trade  of  the  enemv,  w.  min"ht,  after  a 
reasonable  notice,  withdraw  that  ruinous  indulgence  ;  that  the 
comparative  cheapness  of  his  naviij^atioii  <;ives  liim,  in  cverv 
open  market,  a  decisive  advantaj^e  ;  that  in  the  commerce  of  other 
neutral  countries  he  could  not  fail  to  supplant  the  hellii^erent  ; 
and  that  he  obtained  an  increase  of  tratle  bv  purchasing;  from  one 
bellis^erent,  and  selliuL;'  to  his  enemies  the  merchandise  lor  which, 
in  time  of  j^eace,  they  depended  on  each  other. 

Such  complaints  nuule  against  neutral  states  found  a  powerful 
echo  by  the  publication  of  a  work  entitled  "  War  in  Dis!:2;uise 
and  the  I'^rauds  of  the' Neutral  Flaij,"  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  Mr.  James  Stejjhen,  the  real  author  of  the  orders  in 
council.  The  IJiitish  government  did  not  see  its  wav  at  once  to 
proceed  in  the  direction  of  prohibitintj  to  neutral  shi|:)s  the  colo- 
nial trade,  which  thev  had  enjoyed  for  a  considerable  lime;  but 
the  flist  step  was  taken  to  paraly/e  the  resources  of  the  enemy, 
and  to  restrict  the  trade  of  neutrals,  by  the  issue  of  an  order  in 
council  in  May,  1806,  declarin;^  that  all  the  coasts.  [)orts,  and 
rivers  from  the  Elbe  to  Brest  should  be  considered  blockaded, 
thoun^h  the  only  portion  of  those  coasts  rigorously  blockaded  was 
that  included  between  Ostend  and  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  in  the 
ports  of  which  preparations  were  made  for  the  invasion  of  Eng- 


n 
n 


THE   OknERS    IX   CorNCII.. 


103 


land.      The    northern    ports   of  rfcnnany  and    Holland   wore   Kit 
parth'   open,  and   the  na\  i;4ati()n   of  the    naltie   altotjether  tVee. 

Napoleon,  then  in  the  zenith  of  his  power,  saw,  in  tiiis  order 
in  eonncil.  a  fresh  act  of  wantonness,  and  he  met  it  hv  the  issne 
of  the  IJerlin  decree  of  Xov.  Ji,  iS()6,  In  that  docnnient, 
reinarkalile  for  its  lioldness  and  vii^or.  Xapoleon  charj^ed  Imii; 
land  with  iiaviiiLi;  set  at  nauL^ht  the  dictates  of  international  law, 
with  iiavinii^  niaile  prisoners  of  war  of  private  individuals,  and 
with  haxiiii;'  tai<en  the  crews  ont  of  merchant  ships.  He  changed 
this  conntry  witli  havinij^  captnred  private  propeitv  at  sea.  ex- 
tended to  commercial  ports  the  restrictions  of  Mockade  applica- 
ble oidv  to  fortified  ))laces.  declared  as  blockaded  ]-)laces  which 
were  not  invested  hv  naval  forces,  and  ahnsed  the  ri^iit  of  block- 
ade in  order  to  benefit  her  own  ti'ade  at  the  expense  of  the  com- 
merce of  continental  states.  He  asserted  the  riuht  of  combatintj 
the  enemv  witii  the  same  arms  used  ai^ainst  himself,  especially 
when  such  enemv  iii^nored  all  ideas  of  justice,  and  everv  liberal 
sentiment  which  ci\ili/ation  imposes.  He  amiounced  iiis  resolu- 
tion to  appiv  to  KiiLjland  the  same  usages  w  hich  slie  had  estab- 
lishcil  in  her  maiitime  legislation.  He  laid  down  the  principles 
which  France  was  resolved  to  act  upon  until  I^ULjland  siiould 
recoj^nize  tliat  tlie  riu;hts  of  war  are  tiie  sanu'  on  land  as  on  sea, 
that  such  ri>;lits  should  not  be  extended  either  against  jnivate 
propeitv  or  aj^ainst  persons  not  belouLjiii"^  to  the  military  or  naval 
forces,  and  tliat  the  rij^iit  of  blockade  should  be  restricted  to  tor- 
tifieil  i")laces,  trulv  invested  by  suflicient  forces.  Anil  upon  these 
premises  the  decree  ordered.  1st.  Phat  the  British  islands  siiould 
be  declared  in  a  state  of  blockade.  2i\,  That  all  commerce  aiul 
correspondence  with  tlie  British  Islands  should  be  pro]iiI)ited  ; 
and  that  letters  addressed  to  I^u^land  or  ICn<;lishmen,  written  in 
the  En<;^lish  langua<je,  siiould  be  detaiiu-d  and  taken,  -^d,  Tliat 
everv  Hritish  subject  found  in  a  countrv  occupied  bv  I'^rench 
troops,  or  bv  those  of  their  allies,  should  be  made  a  prisoner 
of  war.  4th,  That  all  merchandise  and  property  beloiiLi^injjf  to 
British  subjects  should  be  deemed  a  i^ood  [)rize.  5th.  That  all 
commerce  in  En<;lish  merchandise  shoultl  be  prohibited,  and  tliat 
all  merchandise  belonsjfiuij^  to  Enjj^land  or  her  colonies,  and  ot 
British  manufacture,  should  be  deemetl  a  <j^ood  prize.  And,  6th. 
That  no  vessel  comiiiLj  direct  from  En<rland  or  her  colonies  be 
allowed  to  enter  any  French  port,  or  any  port  subject  to  French 
authority ;    and    that    every    vessel    which,    by  means    of  u  false 


Ul 


^y 


M 


W 


w 


104 


SELECTIONS. 


i      HI' 


declaration,    should    evade    such    regulations"  should   at  once  l)e 
captured. 

TIh'  IJritish  'government  lovt  no  tinu-  in  ret;diatin<^  aj^ainsl 
France  lor  so  bold  a  course;  and  on  Jan.  7.  i.S()7,  an  order  in 
council  was  issued,  wliicii.  alter  reference  to  the  orders  issued  in' 
France,  enjoined  that  no  vessel  should  he  allowed  to  trade  from 
one  enenn's  ])oit  to  another  ;  or  tVom  one  port  to  another  of  a 
French  ally's  coast  shut  at^ain.st  Knj^lish  vessels;  and  ordered  the 
connnanders  of  the  ships  of  war  and  privateers  to  warn  everv 
neutral  vessel  comin;^  from  anv  such  port,  and  destined  to  another 
such  port,  to  discontinue  Iier  voyaj^e,  and  that  anv  vessel,  after 
beini^  so  warned,  whicii  should  he  tound  proceeding"  to  another 
such  ))()rt  should  he  cajjtured  and  considered  as  lawfid  prize. 
This  order  in  council  havin<^  reached  Napoleon  at  Warsaw,  he 
immediateh'  ordered  tlie  confiscation  of  all  Fnijlish  merchandise 
and  colonial  [)roduee  found  in  the  I  lanseatic  Towns.  Hourriemie, 
Napoleon's  commissioner  at  Ilamhurn",  declared  that  all  who  car- 
rieil  on  traile  witli  ICu'^land  >up[)orte(l  En<;land  ;  that  it  was  to 
pievent  such  tradiiiLC  that  I'rance  took  possession  of  I  lainhm'L;" ; 
that  all  English  tijoods  should  be  produced  by  the  Ilambnrnhers 
for  the  purpose  of  beint^  confiscated  ;  and  that  in  fortv-einht 
hours  donuciiiarv  visits  would  be  paid  and  militarv  punishments 
inflicted  on  the  ilisobedient.       IJut    Britain  in    return  went  a    sten 


d   1 


ler.  anti    i)\'  oriier   m  com 


icil.  Nov.  II,  1S07,  declared  all  the 


furth 

ports  and  places  of  Fr.mce,  and  those  of  her  allies,  and  of  all 
countries  where  the  Enijlisii  \]a'j;  was  excluded,  even  though 
thev  were  not  at  war  with  Britain,  placed  inider  the  same  restric- 
tions for  commerce  and  naviLjation  as  if  they  were  blockaded,  and 
conset[uently  that  ships  destined  to  those  ports  should  be  liable  to 
the  visit  of  Biitish  cruisers  at  a  British  station,  and  there  sub- 
jected to  a  tax    to  be  imposed  by  the  British  Parliament. 

Napoleon  was  at  Milan  when  tins  order  in  council  was  issued, 
and  forthwith,  on  December  17.  the  famous  decree  appeared,  by 
which  he  imposed  on  neutrals  just  the  contrarv  of  what  was  pre- 
scribed to  them  by  Enj^land.  and  further  declared  that  every 
vessel,  of  whatever  nation,  that  submitted  to  the  order  in  council 


o 


f  N 


ovem 


her  1 1  shouKl   bv  that  verv  act  become  denationalized, 


considered  as  liritish  pro))ertv.  and  coiulcmned  as  a  good  prize. 
The  decree  placed  the  British  islands  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
and  ordered  that  every  ship,  of  whatever  nation,  and  with  what- 
ever cargo,  proceeding  tVom  English  ports  or  English  colonies  to 


'!' 


Tin:   ORDERS    I.\    COUNCIL. 


105 


countries  o(.-ciipie(l  by  EiiLjlish  troops,  or  ^oiiii;  to  Enji^laiul,  slioiild 
be  a  ijood  prize.  This  ICuj^laiul  answered  by  the  order  in  eoim- 
cil  ot' April  26,  1809,  which  revoked  the  order  of  iSoy  as  rei;ards 
America,  l)iit  conliriiied  tiie  bioci<ade  of  all  the  ports  of  I'^raiice 
and  Holland,  their  C(donies  and  de|)endencies.  And  then  Fiance, 
still  further  incensed  a<4"ainst  England,  issued  the  larill'of  Trianon, 
dated  Aut,'.  5,  iSio.  coinpleted  by  thi'  decree  of  St.  Cloud  of  Sep- 
tember 12,  and  of  Foiitainebleau  ot"  October  19,  which  wont  the 
len<;th  of  orderiutf  the  seizure  and  burnin;^  of  all  IJritish  j^oods 
tbuud  in  I'rance,  (lerniauy,  Holland,  Italy,  Spain,  and  in  every 
place  occupied  by  French  troops.  Strant^e  iutatuation  I  and  how 
mau\'  .States  took  part  in  tiiis  mad  act  of  \indictiveness  I  The 
princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  hastened  to  execute  it, 
some  tor  the  pur|)ose  ot"  enricliin<f  thenisebes  bv  tlie  wicked  deetl, 
some  out  of  hatred  towards  the  l-^n^lish,  and  some  to  show  their 
devf)tion  towards  their  master.  From  Carlsruhe  to  Munich.  t"r()m 
Cassel  to  Dresden  and  llambur;^,  every wiiere,  bonlires  were  made 
of  l^iirlish  i;<)ods.  And  so  exactin^j  were  the  I'^ench,  that  when 
Fraid<fort  exhibited  the  least  hesitation  in  carrvinj^  out  the  decree 
French  troops  were  sent  to  execute  the  order. 

\)y  means  such  as  these  the  commerce  of  tlie  world  was  <;reatly 
(leranc;"ed,  if  not  destroved  altoi^ether,  anil  none  sull'ered  more 
from  it  than  l'>nulan(l  herself".  Was  it  not  enoui^h  to  be  elVectually 
shut  out  from  all  commerce  with  French  poits,  that  we  should 
have  |)ro\()ke(i  the  closing"  of  neutral  ports  also?  Was  it  politic, 
at  a  time  when  oui'  relations  with  the  [)rincipal  ])owers  were  in  a 
condition  so  critical,  to  alienate  t'rom  us  all  the  neutral  states  of 
Europe?  Was  it  wise  to  inibct  so  grievous  an  injury  upon  neutral 
states,  as  to  force  them  to  make  common  cause  with  the  enemy? 
It  is  scarcely  possible  to  describe  at  w  hat  jieril  the  commerce  of 
the  world  was  carrieil  on.  The  proceeding's  of  the  Court  of 
Admiraltv  are  full  of  the  most  romantic  incidents.  An  American 
shi[),'  with  a  cargo  of  tobacco,  was  sent  from  America  to  Vij^^o, 
or  to  a  market,  lor  sale.  At  VIl^o  the  tobacco  was  sold  under 
contract  to  deliver  it  at  Seville,  at  the  master's  risk,  and  the 
vessel  was  goin<i^  to  .Seville  to  deliver  the  cargo  when  she  was 
captured.  A  British  vessel  ''  was  separated  from  her  convoy 
during  a  storm,  and  brought  out  by  a  French  lugger  which  came 
up,  and   told  the  master  to   stay  by  her  till  the  storm  moderated, 


■l'\ 


•  The  "  Atliis,"  1,  Rob.  Rep.,  p.  Ji/.). 

Si  The  "  Edward  and  Mary,"  3  Hot).  Rep.,  p.  305. 


io6 


SKI,KCrU)NS. 


jt; 


i.'<  i^, 


when  thov  would  st'iid  ;i  IiomI  on  l)o;ir(l.  Tlu'  hii^iicr  i"on(iinu'<l 
Mloii;4si(l(.',  sonu'tiiiH's  ;i1hm(1.  and  sonu-tinu-s  asli-rn.  and  sonu-- 
tiini-s  to  windwanl,  for  llirco  or  four  lioms,  lint  a  Hritisli  frigate 
condn;^  in  sii^dit  i^^avc  cliast;  to  the  hi^'Ljer  ind  captnrod  he  r,  (hnin'Lj 
vvliich  time  tin-  .siiip  made  lier  escape,  reioiiK'd  tlie  convoy,  and 
came  into  I'ooli-.  Ships  were  taUeii  hecaiise  they  were  saihnt^  to 
false  destinations,  nnder  false  papers,  false  Il,r4s,  false  certilicati-s 
of  ownership,  and  false  hills  of  sale.  TIk'n  were  seized  foi 
rimnini:;  (he  hlockade,  and  for  escapin;^  from  hlnckaded  ports. 
Thex  were  arrested  for  carryint^  despatches,  military  men,  and 
eontrahaiid  of  war.  In  every  way,  at  every  point  of  the  ocean, 
the  |)nr^iiit  was  canied  on,  till  the  seas  were  cleared  of  merchant 
ships,  and  the  hit^hway  of  nations,  the  widest  and  Ireest  arena  lor 
trade,  was  converted  into  an  an^iphitheatre  for  the  display  of  tlu- 
wildest  and   worst  excesses  of  himian  cupidity  and  passions. 

lint  a  greater  evil  than  even  this  extreme  derangement  of 
maritime  commerce  was  that  which  Ihnved  Irom  the  s\slem  ot 
licenses,'  an  e\il  which  undermined  the  first  principles  of  com- 
mercial morality.  It  was  forcihly  stated  hy  the  Manpiis  of 
Lansdowne  that  the  commerce  of  the  country  was  one  mass 
of  simulation  and  dissimulation  ;  that  our  tradeis  crept  alont^  the 
shores  of  the  enem\'  in  darkness  and  silence,  waitin<4"  for  an  op- 
portnnit\'  (jf  carrN  iuij  into  ell'ect  the  simulative  means  by  which 
thev  sonj^ht  to  carry  on  their  husiness  ;  that  such  a  svstem  'vd  to 
prixate  \  iolation  of  morality  and  honor  of  the  most  alarming 
description  ;  and  that,  instead  of  henetiting  our  commerce,  manu- 
factures, and  resources,  the  orders  in  council  diminished  our  com- 
merce, distressed  our  manufactiues,  and  lessened  our  resources, 
^'et  all  these  warnings  and  expostulations  were  unheeded.  The 
national  mind  was  preoccupied  hy  the  ouc  thought  of  compelling 
France  and  her  military  leader  to  a  complete  submission  ;  and 
no  consideration  of  a  commercial  or  pecuniary  character,  no  re- 
gard to  the  bearing  of  her  measures  u])on  other  countries,  were 
Builicient  to  induce  a  reversal  of  this  military  and  naval  policv. 

Upwards  of  fifteen  years  had  elapsed  since  the  first  shot  was 
fired  between  England  and  France  after  the  great  revolution,  and 
yet  the  two  nations  were  as  intent  as  ever  on  securing  their  mu- 
tual destruction.     England   had   indeed   learnt,   bv  this   time,  to 


1  The  number  of  commercial  licenses  trninted  for  imports  and  exports  was  68  in  1S02,  S.^fi 
in  1S03,  1,1.(1  in  1804,791  in  1805,1,6^0  in  1S06,  i,6o6  in  1807,  4,910  in  jSoS,  15,226  in  1S09,  i8,35<'> 
in  jSio,  aiui  7,60^  in  iSii. 


nil':  oKDKKs  IN  (orNcii, 


107 


make  liu'lit  of  all   siicli   (Icnvcs,  and  she  had  foinid  1)\   rxpcrii'iu-e 
that   Hiitish  ^^ridds  loiind  tlicir  way  to  tlii' Coiiliiuiit  in  spili'  of  all 


vindictive  nu'asiifes.  I»nt  the  attitude  of  the  I'liiti'd  Stall's  lie- 
canie  nioic-  and  nioie  thieali-niiii^.  and  tiie  nations  saw  ai\  ahsohite 
tiecessitv  t'oi  ivx  isin^'  tiie  ijohev  ol'  thi-  ordiTs  in  eonneil.  l''or 
yeais  past  Lord  TenipK'.  Lord  Castleieanh,  Mr.  l\i\'e\al,  Sir 
[ohn  Nichols,  had  hron^ht  the  suhjecl  lulore  tlii'  I  louse,  and 
many  a  loii^^  discussion  had  taken  place  on  the  snhject.  In  tlu'ir 
opinion  this  country  had,  without  an\'  alli-'^id  provocation  tVoui 
the  I'nited  States  of  America,  interrupted  ncarls  the  \\  hojf  ol" 
their  commerce  with  I'^uropi'.  and  the\  held  that  such  (irdi'is  in 
council  wi're  nniust  and  impolitic,  and  that  the  issuing  of  lluiu, 
at  the  time  and  under  the  circumstances,  was  an  act  oftlu-  utmost 
impro\  ideiice  and  rashness.  Yet  the  nation  was  disposed  to  \)c 
j^uided  1)V  the  <^r)\ernment ;  and  when  Lord  (Jreinille  moved 
resolutions  of  similar  import,  in  iS()(;,  he  mi't  with  no  hetti'r 
response.  When,  however,  the  I'nited  States,  alter  havjuLJ 
passed  till  "^'on-intercouise  Act,  proceeded  still  fuitlu-r  in  the 
wav  of  pre)  '  ation  for  ojien  hostilities,  the  merchants  he^an  to 
speak  their  mind  on  the  subject;  and  from  London,  Hull.  Ilristol, 
and  all  the  chief  ports,  jietitions  came  to  the  U't^islature  piayinj^ 
for  the  revocation  of  the  olmoxious  orders.  The  merchants  of 
London  represented  that  trade  was  in  a  miserable  condition, 
cliieily  from  the  want  of  the  customary  intercourse  with  the 
continent  of  lCuro|)e  ;  that  employment  w  as  very  scarce,  and  the 
wa^es  of  labor  very  low  ;  that  the  aspect  of  allairs  threatened  ad- 
ditional sullerin;^  to  those  then  experienced  ;  that  since  all  the  e\  ils 
then  sullered  were  owiniDj  to  the  continuance  of  the  war,  it  was 
all-important  to  obtain  if  possible  an  earlv  restoration  of  the  bless- 


ii'.^s  of  peace  ;  that  it  was  not  from  any  dread  of  the  enemv  that 
thev  made  such  a  recpiest,  but  iVom  a  desire  that  no  opportunity 
niii^ht  be  lost  of  entering  into  negotiations  for  the  pmpose  ;  that 
in  their  opinion  it  was  a  <jjreat  error  to  snpp(ise  that  tin.-  policy  of 
the  orders  of  the  council  could  in  any  way  be  benelicial  to  trade  ; 
but  that,  on  the  contrary,  thev  reLjartled  with  extieme  apprehen- 
sion its  eU'ect  on  our  relations  with  the  Ignited  States  of  America. 
The  merchants  of  Hull  complained  that  the  system  of  license 
sapped  public  morals.  Those  of  Bristol  represented  that  they 
sufl'ered  intensely  in  their  <i;eneral  trade  ;  and  riots  occurred  in 
Lancashire,   Yorkshire,  and  Cheshire. 

On  April  28,  181 3,  the  Mouse  of  Commons  agreed,  without  a 


)! 


ir 


ill) 
(111 

t'l  I  m 


i!'. 


.nM 


(i^i 


io8 


si:i.r.(  rioNs. 


(li\  isi(»n.  t')  lu'iir  i'\  idi'iut-    in  siippoit   of  llu'sc   pi'tltiniis  ;   ;in(l.  nii 

Jiiiu'     I'),    Ml.,   aftcrw  aids    Lmil,    l{r()ti;;li;iiii   iu'ini^iI.    •• 'I'li.it    :iii 

IminbU'   ;i(l(lri'ss  1)1'    pii'si'iiti'd  to  his    Kitval    1 1  i^liiu-ss  tin-  I'riiu'i- 

Rcj^i'iit.  11  pii'sriitin^' to  his  Koval  niL;hiU'ss  that    this  I  lousi-  has, 

for  sdiur   liiiu'  past,  ln'i'ii  I'lit^aj^td  in  an   iiupiiiN   into  the   prcsiait 

(iipii'ssi'il  stall'  of  thi'  nianul'actnic's  ainl  (.•oiunu  iii'  ol'  thr  counlrv  . 

and  ihr  ill'iits  oj'  thi' oidiTs    in    (.oniu'il    issiu'd    li\   his   niajcsts   in 

tlic  M'ars    iSoj"  and    iNimj;   assuring;'   liis   loval   hiuhiuss   that   this 

llonsc  will  at  all  tinus  support   his  royal    hi.;hncss    to  ihi-  utmost 

oi'  its    powi'is.  in  maintainiiiL;'  thosi-  jiist    maritiiiu'    ri'^hts    whiidi 

ha\t.'    I'ssi'iitially  contriluitfd  to   thi'   prosperity  and    honor   oi'  tlu- 

realm;     hut    bt'SL'c'chin,i4'    his    ro\al    lii;;hiu'ss    that    lu'    w  oidd    In- 

j^racioiisU    jiK'asrd    t<»   rcfall   or    Mispcnd    tlir    said    oiiKis.  and   to 

adopt  siuh    iiu'asm\'s  as   luav  tend   to  coiuilialr   luutral    powers, 

without  s;ierilicin;4  the  v\'^\\i  and  di^^nitx  ot"  his  nia)est\'s  erowii." 

In  the  most  graphic  manner  Lord  llion^liam  depleted  the  distress 

of  the  eountrv,  showed  how  erroneous  was  the  idea  that  what  we 

lost  in    the    ICuropean  trade  we    i;ained  in    am  other  i|iiait(.'r,  and 

warned  the  eountrv  oi'the  eeilaintv  of  a  war  with  Ameriea  it"  the 

orders  were  not  at  oiu'e  ri'seinded.      *"  I  know."  he  said,  ••  1  shall 

he  asked,  whether  I  would  reeoinmend  an\'  sacriiiee   lor  the  mei\' 

purpose  ot'  eoneiliatinn'  America.      1    reeommend    no   saeriiiee  oi' 

honor  I'or  that  or  lor  any  purpose  ;   hut  I  will  tell  you  thai  I  think 

we  ean  well  and  safely,  i'or  our  honor,  all'oid  to  eoneiliate  America. 

IS'ever  did  we  stand  so  h\'j;h    since  we   were  a    n.ition   in   point  ol' 
..   -t:. I .1  ...        w..   1 :*   :. ,    ..i i I   


militarv  character 


e  have  it  m   al)nndance.  and  evi'u  to  si^are. 


1  his  unhappy  and  seeinm<;ly  intermiiialile  war.  lavisli  as  it  lias 
been  in  treasure,  still  more  proiuse  of  hlood  and  harreii  of  real 
advantage,  has  at  least  been  eipially  lav  ish  ol'  ^lory.  Its  feats 
have  not  merely  sustained  the  warlike  fame  of  t'.ie  nation,  which 
would  ha\  e  been  nuich  ;  they  have  done  w  hat  seemed  scarcelv 
possible.  —  they   have  greatly   exalted    it.       'i'hey    have    covered 


on 


r   arms  with   immortal  renown. 


Tl 


len. 


I 


sav,  use    thiS' 


Ulorv 


—  use  this  proud  height  on  which  we  now  stand  for  the  pin- 
pose  of  ]ieace  and  conciliation  with  America.  Let  this  and 
its  incalculable  benelits  be  the  advaiitaye  which  we  rea])  from 
the  war  in  Europe,  for  the  fame  of  that  war  enables  us  safelv 
to  take  it.  And  who,  I  demand,  <i;ive  the  most  dis<j^racehil 
coimsels,  —  they  who  tell  you  we  are  in  military  character  but  of 
yesterday,  we  yet  have  a  name  to  win,  we  stand  on  doubtful 
round,  we  dare  not  do  as  vvc  list  for  fear  of  bein<;  thought  afraitl ; 


g 


nil.   OKDKKS    IN    rolNCII, 


loy 


1 
1 


wi-   iMiiiidl.  willioiil   lii^x  (it*  name.  ><l<iii|)   to  ]);u'il'\   our   Anurii'aii 


Kmsiiiiii 


Ml' 


who   sa\    wl"    ail'    a    ;_,ni'at,    a    |)ioii 


a    w  a  I  like 


|nMi])ic' ;  \\  I'  liavr  |oii'.;ii(  i'\  i-rvu  lu-ii.',  and  (.'oiuiiuTid  \\  Iu'Ii'n  it  wc 
lia\f  I'oii'^lil  :  our  i.liara».tt.'i'  is  i'ti'nial!\  tKi-d  —  it  stands  too  llnii 
to  !>(.'  slialxi'ii  :  and,  on  tin.-  t'aitli  ot'  it.  \\  i'  nia\  do  towai'ds  AnuTioa 
sat(.'I\  lor  onrhoiHir  that  whiih  \\  i-  know  onr  intiri"-ls  ri'i|niu'? 
This  prrprtiial  jraionsxot'  Anu'iii,;!  I      (  iood  ( iod  !    I  lainioi.  with 


ti'inuiT.  ask  on  what  it  ii'sts 


'1 
of  it 

il 


It  <l 


ii\  cs   mr  to  a  passum   to  tliink 


lo||S\-       (I 


t  A 


nuiKa 


slioiiid   as  soon    think  o|    liriiij^ 
li 


jealous   ol    \\\c  tradi  small   who  supplu's    iiu'  with    lU'i'issai  us.  or 
the   clii'Ut  wlio  I'litriists    Ids   suits  to    m\   patidiiam'.       |ialoiis\  of 


Aini'rica  I   whose   annirs  arc   as   \i 


t    at    th 


])loimli,  or   malvin'^f, 


siiu'i'  \  tiiir  noiu  \   lias 


willrd  it.  so   awisward   (tiioii'^h  iiiipro\  inn) 

iihl   not   lav 


w  liosc    assi'inl'lc'd    iia\  U's    to 


attempts   at    tl  >.'   lodiii 

sif<;i'  to  an  I'.nnlisli  haihoi  I       |c'alous\ of  a  power  \\  hi 


cii  IS  iirei's- 


hiit  w  huh,  il  It  Ikk 


Ih 


f  amlii- 


sariU'  pL-aii'liil  as  wt'll  as  wi-al 

tion   of   I'^raiu'i.',  and    lu'r   armies    to    hack  it.  and    all    tlu'  iiav\-  of 

I'ji'^land  to  hoot — ■  iia\  .  had  it  tlu'   lust  of  i.-on(|iust  whiih    marks 


\()iir  fiR'inu's.  and  sour  own  armv  as  wt 


11 


as   na\  \ ,  to  ''iatil\ .  it 


is  nlaci'd  at  so  vast  a   distance  as  to  he  pertcctU   haiiiile.' 


And 


this  is  the  nation  ot   w  hich.  for  our  honor's   sake.  \vc   arc  desired 


to  cherish  a  pcipetiial    jcalousN 


>r  the  rui'i  of  our  l>ist  interests. 


I  trust,  sir.  that  no  such  phantom   of  the  hiaiu  will  scaii'  us   iVoin 
the  path  of  our  diitv.      The  ad\  ice  which  1  tendi'r  is  not  the  same 


Avhich  has  at  all  times  hceii  olleied  to  this  countr\' 


r 


lere  is  one 


niciiiorable  era  in  our  histor\  wlu-n  other  uses  wire  made  ot"  our 
triumphs  from  those  which  I  recommend,  lly  the  Ireatv  of 
I'trecht.  which  the  re|:)rol)ation  of  a;_es  has  left   iiiadecpiateK'  cen- 


suri'd.  we  were  content  to  obtain,  as  the  w  lioie  i)rice  o 


.f  R; 


imillies 


.iiul  Blenheim,  an  additional  share  of  the  accursed  sla\e  trade.  I 
give  \()U  other  counsels.  I  shc)uld  ha\e  \(iu  einplo\  the  niorv 
which  \()U  have  won  at  Talavera  and  Coiunna  in  nstoiiiiL;'  \our 
commerce  to  its  lawful,  open,  honest  course,  and  rescue  it  from 
the  mean  aiul  hateful  channels  in  which  it  has  lately  hcen  con- 
fined. And,  if  any  thouu'litless  boaster,  in  .\merica  or  elsewhere, 
should  vaunt  that  you  have  yielded  through  tear,  1  would  not  bid 
liim  wait  until  some  new  achievement  of  our  arms  jnit  him  to 
silence,  but  I  would  counsel  you  in  silence  to  disregard  him." 

The  cllect  of  such  an  appeal  was  t'atal  to  the  wludc  system. 
The  government  saw  that  resistance  was  no  longer  possit)le,  anil 
on  April  21  the  I'rince  Regent  made  a  declaration  that  the  orders 


It 


hit' 

Hit 

I'i  1  iJ) 


m 


I 

:  ■ 

i 


1  lO 


sr.i.EcrioNs. 


iif>: 


(' 


ill  Cduiuil  would  he  ivvokod  as  soon  as  tin*  BlmIIii  and  Milan 
decrees  should  he  repealed.  l>ul  it  was  too  late.  America  had 
by  this  time  ceased  to  maintain  a  nential  attitude.  And.  havin|j^ 
made  a  secret  treatv  with  Napoleon,  she  issueil  an  emhari^o  on 
all  iJritish  vessels  in  American  ports,  declared  war  aj^ainst  Vm'^- 
iand,  and  proceeded  to  maUe  an  inetlectual  attack  n]>ou  Canada. 
The  political  condition  of  ICiuope,  however,  at  this  staj^e  happilv 
assumed  a  bright  aspect.  The  lon^-desired  ])eace  he^an  to  dawn 
on  the  hori/ori,  and  in  rapid  succession  the  news  came  of  the 
battle  of  Leip/ii;.  the  entry  of  the  Allies  into  I'aris,  ami  the  abdi- 
cation of  Honaparte.  Xeii^otiations  then  commenced  in  earnest, 
ixnA  they  issued  in  a  treaty  of  peace  and  Conijress  of  \'iemia, 
\\  hich  once  more  restored  order  and  svmmetrv  in  the  political  or- 
<j^ai!i/ation  of  ICurope.'  On  Dec.  -j,  1S14,  a  treatv  of  peace  was 
sitj^ned  between  the  L'nited  Kinu^doin  and  the  Uniteil  States.  On 
June  9.  1S15,  the  jMincipal  act  of  the  C()u,u;ress  of  N'ienna  was 
siijn.eil,  which  established  the  t'uture  political  ndations  of  the 
ICuropean  States,  and  laid  tlowii  the  re<;'ulations  for  the  free  na\i- 
gation  of  rivers  ;  and  on  Julv  27,  of  the  same  ^•ear,  a  Treaty  of 
Commerce  w  as  concluded  lietween  (Jreat  Britain  and  the  United 
Stales  of  America. 


'  Till'  t(U;il  inst  iif  the  war  \\  illi  l-'niiici",  from  iji),}  In  1S15  (the  war  fxpcmliturc  contimicd 
till  iSi7!,was  X,S,i  ,.).|(i,4.|o.  'I'lic  national  ilcbt,  wliicli,  in  1793,  aniounlcil  to  ^it7>S7)>434>  '"^"-' 
in  1S15  to  x; So  1,039,049. 


riNA\Ci:S   OF    KNCW.ANI). 


I  I  I 


VII. 

TIIK    FINANCES   OF    I*:\(;r.ANI)    1793-1815. 
From  I'ortkr's  PuiMiKKss  or  tiik  Nm  ion.   Sixtion   I\'. 

C'llAI'lI'.K    I. 

In  order  to  <five  an  ink-Ui^ibk'  acconnl  of  tl)c  llrKmcial  state  of 
the  kiM<;cloin  at  the  l)e<^iiiiiiii;^  of  the  present  ceiitiiiv,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  exphiin  l)riellv  the  system  wliieh  had  heen  hron<^ht  into 
opeiatioii  l>y  Mr.  I'ittt  durin<if  the  precedinij  three  yeais. 

In  Xoveniher,  1797,  that  minister  had  recourse  to  what  lie  was 
pleased  to  call  "■  a  perfect!}'  new  and  solid  system  of  tinance." 
The  pul)lic  expenclitnre  of  tlu't  year  amonnted  to  twentv-live  and 
a  half  millions,  of  which  sum  only  six  and  a  half  millions  were 
provided  tor  l>v  existiiijjf  unmorti^aLjed  taxes,  leavin<^  nineteen 
millions  to  he  raised  by  extraordinary  means.  In  the  then  con- 
ditiv)n  of  the  money  market,  it  was  felt  to  be  impossible  to  bor- 
row such  an  amoimt  in  the  ordinary  mamier,  that  is,  piovidin^jj 
i>y  new  taxes  for  the  payment  of  only  the  peinianent  annual 
burthen  occasioned  by  the  increased  debt;  and  a  new  impost,  cal- 
culated to  protlucc  seven  millions,  was  sanctioned  by  parliament, 
which  impost  was  to  be  continued  imtil  it  shoultl,  in  conjunction 
witii  the  produce  of  the  sinkin<^-fund,  repay  the  twelve  millions 
that  would  be  still  deficient.  This  new  s\  stem  of  linance  mij^ht 
have  been  entitled  to  the  character  <j[iven  of  it  by  Mr.  Pitt,  if  it 
had  not  been  probable  —  nay,  certain — that  in  the  following 
years  an  equal  expenditure  must  be  met  by  similar  means,  until 
the  seven  millions  would  prove  inadequate  even  for  the  pavment 
of  the  annual  interest  of  the  sums  for  which  the  tax  was  im- 
posed, when  it  would  become  part  of  the  permanent  burthens  of 
the  country.  This  new  impost,  to  which  the  name  of  ''  triple 
assessment  "  was  given,  was  in  fact  an  addition  made  to  the 
assessed  taxes,  "  in  a  triplicate  proportion  to  their  previous 
amount  —  limited,  however,  to  the  tenth  of  each  person's  in- 
come." 

The  adoption  of  this,  or  some  similar  plan  of  financial  arrange- 
ment, was  hardly  a  matter  of  choice  with  the  minister,  by  whom 


II: 
11 


n'i 


1, " 


.i,i|i  ^ 


1 1*' ' "' 


,1 

.  '■>: 

1   ill 


fiil 


\m 


I  12 


SEI.I-XTIONS. 


;iii'  ii 


tlic  fiiiidinj^  system,  ns  ordinarily  practised,  could  not  have  been 
any  furtlu'r  [iursucd  at  that  time.  I'nfoi tnnaleiv  for  the  success 
of  the  principle  \\  iiich  it  was  thus  son|L(ht  to  establish,  tiie  nuxle 
in  whicii  it  was  proposed  to  raise  the  seven  millions  of  additional 
revenue  was  highly  unpopular,  and  indeed  it  has  always  excited 
dissatisfaction  on  the  j^art  of  the  jniblic  to  be  called  on  for  the 
pa\  nient  of  anv  tax  from  which  they  have  not  the  power  to  pro- 
tect themselves,  by  abstaining;  iVom  the  use  of  tlie  taxed  corn- 
modify.  It  is  this  consideration  which  has  aKva\s  made  our 
finance  ministers  prefer  indirect  to  direct  taxation,  and  which  led, 
durinj^  the  proLjress  of  a  lonti^  and  e\|)ensive  war,  to  the  imposi- 
tion of  duties  that  wi-it^hed  with  destructive  force  upon  the 
sprin;4s  of  industry.  The  linancial  ditliculties  bv  which  the 
jrovermnent  was  then  emliarrassed  mav  be  known  tVom  the  tact 
that  a  loan  of  three  millions  was  raised  in  April,  179S.  at  the  rate 
of  .t'2(x>  three  per  cent,  stock,  and  5s.  lon;^'  aniniit\  toi'  each  .£'100 
borrowed,  beini^  at  the  rate  of  six  and  a  c[uarter  per  cent.,  and  that 
the  ''  triple  assi-ssment,"  which  was  calculated  to  produce  seven 
millions,  yielded  no  more  than  lour  antl  a  Iialf  millions.  In  the  fol- 
lowing^ December  the  triple  assessment  was  re|)eakHl,  and  in  lieu 
of  it  an  income-tax  was  imposetl  at  the  rate  of  10  per  cent,  ujion 
all  incomes  amountinix  to  t'joo  and  upwards,  witli  diminishiuL;- 
rates  upon  smaller  incomes,  down  to  .£()0  per  aniunn,  below 
which  rate  the  tax  was  not  to  apj^ly.  This  tax  was  estimated 
to  produce  ten  >r.lllions  ;  it  was  called  a  war  tax  ;  but,  when  the 
minister  proceeded  to  mortu^age  its  produce  to  detVav  the  interest 
of  loans  to  a  lari^e  amount,  such  a  name  a[)pearetl  to  be  little 
better  than  a  delusion.  Like  the  triple  assessment,  the  produce 
of  the  income-tax  fell  greatly  short  of  its  estimated  amount, 
and  yielded  no  more  than  seven  millions,  a  h.rge  ])art  of  whicii 
was  (|uickly  absorbed  to  defray  the  interest  of  loans  tor  which  it 
was  successively  pledged.  In  1801,  alter  deducting  the  sinus 
thus  chargeable  on  it,  this  tax  produced  only  four  millions  towards 
the  national  expenditure.  In  proposing  a  loan  of  twenty-live  and 
a  half  millions  for  the  service  of  that  year,  it  was  considered  in- 
expedient to  mortgage  the  income  tax  any  further,  and  new  taxes 
were  imposed,  estimated  to  yielil  £1 ,800.000  per  annum.  In 
!March,  1802,  peace  was  made  with  France,  and  in  the  same 
month  notice  was  given  by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Mr. 
Addington,  of  his  intention  to  repeal  the  income-tax,  which  was 
felt  to  be  highly  oppressive,  and  had  become  more  and   more  otli- 


FIXWCKS    OF   KXCI.AM). 


113 


ous  to  the  people.  In  clVcctinLT  this  ivpcil.  ;iti(l  at  the  .^aine  lime 
to  Ui'cp  faith  witii  the  piil)lic  cit'(Uti)is.  to  whom  its  pToihicc  liail 
been  niortija<;c{l  to  the  cxti-iit  ot'  lit't\-si\  and  a  hall"  iniliioiis  of* 
3  per  cent,  stock,  achhtional  taxes  were  im|')ose(l  upon  hecT, 
malt,   and   hops,  and  a    considerahle    increase   was   made   to    the 


assessec 


1  taxes.  1 


)esi(tes  w 


hid 


1   an   ac 


Idit 


ion,  under   the    name  of  a 


modilication,  was  made   to  the  tax  on    imports  and    exports,  pre- 
vioiisl\-  known  under  the    name  of  the  convoy  dutv. 

At  this  time  the  a<ri;MX\!4"ate  amount  ol'  permanent  taxes  was  thirtv- 
ci,L;ht  and  a  half  millions,  exactlx'  double  w  liat  it  had  l)een  at  the 
breakinj^  out  of  the  war  in  i  y*)^.  During-  those  nine  vears,  taxes  to 
the  amoinit  of  ,i.'2So.()oo.fxx),  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  coUectioiii 
had  been  levied  from  the  people  ;  and  a  few  words  are  necessary 
in  order  to  account  for  the  seemin<^  contradiction  implied  in  the 
fact,  that,  notwitlistandiiiijf  this  ruin.ous  rate  of  expenditure,  many 
of  the  j^reat  interests  throughout  the  country  wore  the  oulwaid 
appearance  of  prosperity.  A  nation  ens^aijed  in  an  expensive 
war,  which  calls  for  the  systematic  expenditure  of  lar^e  snms  lie- 
yond  its  income,  may  l)e  likened  to  an  individual  spendthrift 
dmiufj^  his  career  of  riot  and  extravau^ance  ;  all  about  him  wears 
the  aspect  of  plenty  and  prospei'ity,  and  this  a])iiearance  will  con- 
tinue imtil  his  means  bei^in  to  faib  and  those  who  have  tattened 
upon  his  profusion  are  at  lenj^th  sent  awa\-  empty.  The  enor- 
mous expeniliturc  of  the  'j;overmnent,  joined  to  the  state  of  the 
currency  (as  already  explained),  necessarily  caused  a  general 
anilj^ieat  rise  of  prices  ;  as  regartled  aij^ricultural  produce,  this 
cllect  w;is  exaij^j^erated  by  the  uiv^enial  nature  of  the  seasons. 
Rents  had  risen  throughout  the  country  in  a  far  ;j;reater  de- 
y;ree  than  the  necessary  ex[>enditure  of  the  land-owne::  ,  who 
thence    found    their     situations     im[)roved,    uotwithstaudinij^    the 


additional    load    of    taxatioi 


Tl 


le    <'"ivat    munber    of  contrac 


tors  and  other  persons  dealiuL;"  with  the  Li^overnment  iiad 
derived  a  positive  l)ene(it  from  the  public  expeiuliture,  and, 
beinjj^  chieth-  resident  at  the  seat  of  L;"o\ernment,  they  were 
enabled  greatly  to  inlluence  the  tone  of  public  opinion.  The 
irreater  command  of  money  thus  <'iven  to  considerable  classes 
occasioned  an  increaseil  demand  ibr  luxuries  of  foreign  and 
domestic  production,  from  wliicli  the  merchants  and  dealers 
derived  atlvantage.  '^Fhere  were,  bosiiles,  other  classes  of  persons 
who  prohted  from  the  war  expenditure.  These  were  the  pro- 
ducers of  manufactured  goods,  and  those  who  dealt  in  them,  and 


m^ 


is 


it 


It  nil. 


i-rl] 


4'. 


w 


114 


SELKCTIONS. 


I  , 


who  found  their  dealings  fjrcatly  increased  by  means  of  the  foreitjn 
expenditure  of  the  govcrnnient  in  suhsidies  and  expeditions,  the 
means  for  wiiich  were  furnished  throuj^h  those  dealin<rs;  tiie 
manufacturers  were  at  the  same  time  he^jinuiny;  to  reaj)  tlie  advan- 
t;if^es  that  have  since  been  e\i)erienced  in  a  more  considerable 
de<2^ree  from  the  series  of  inventions  be!j;un  by  IIar<i;reaves  and 
Arkwrii^ht,  and  which  acted  in  some  de;^nee  as  palliatives  to  the 
evil  effects  of  the  <j^overnment  profusion. 

As  in  tlie  case  of  the  spendthrift,  while  all  these  causes  were  in 
operation,  there  was  an  appearance  of  prosperity,  and  those  who 
were  proliting  from  this  state  of  thinj^s  were  anxious  to  keep  up 
the  delusion.  That  it  was  no  more  than  delusion  will  be  at  once 
apparent  to  all  who  examine  below  the  surface,  and  who  inquire 
as  to  the  condition  of  poverty  and  wretchedness  into  which  the 
<2[reat  mass  of  the  people  were  then  phni^ed.  In  some  few  cases 
there  had  been  an  advance  of  wages  ;  but  this  occurred  only  to 
skilled  artisans,  and  even  witli  them  the  rise  wa-  nholly  incom- 
mensiu'ate  with  the  increased  cost  of  all  the  necessaries  of  life. 
The  lucre  lal)orer — he  who  had  nothing  to  bring  to  market  but 
his  limbs  and  sinews  —  did  not  participate  in  tiiis  partial  compen- 
sation for  high  prices,  but  was,  in  most  cases,  an  eager  competitor 
for  employment,  at  tiie  same  or  nearly  the  same  wages  as  hatl  been 
given  before  the  war.  Nor  could  it  well  be  otherwise,  since  the 
demarid  for  labor  can  only  increase  with  the  increase  of  the  capital 
destined  for  the  payment  of  wages  ;  and  we  have  seen  that  capital, 
so  far  frt)m  being  suffered  to  accunuilate,  was  dissipated  by  the 
government  expenditure  more  raj^idly  than  it  could  be  accumulated 
by  individuals.  In  London  and  its  vicinity  the  rates  of  wages  are 
necessarily  higher,  because  of  the  greater  expense  of  living,  than 
in  countrv  tlistricts  ;  and  it  is  asserted,  from  personal  knowledge 
of  the  fact,  that  at  the  time  in  question  there  was  a  superabundant 
supply  of  laborers  constantly  competing  for  eiuployment  at  the 
large  government  estal)lishments,  where  the  weekly  wages  did  not 
exceed  15s.,  while  the  price  of  the  ([uartern  loaf  was  is.  lod.,  and 
the  other  necessary  outgoings  of  a  laborer's  family  were  nearly 
as  higi.  in  proportion.  If  we  contrast  the  weekly  wages  at  the 
two  periods  of  1790  :iiid  iSoo,  of  husbandry  laborers,  and  of 
skilled  artisans,  measuring  them  both  by  the  (juantity  of  wheat 
which  they  could  command,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  former  could, 
in  1790,  purchase  eighty-two  pints  of  wheat,  and  in  1800  could 
procure  no  more  than  fifty-three  pints,  while  the  skilled  artisan, 


FIXAXCES    OV    r.XCU.AXD. 


I  I 


who  ill  179'^  could  Iniy  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  ];)iiils.  could 
])rocure  in  iScxd  oidy  eimhtv-three  pints.  To  t;dk  of  the  prosper- 
ous state  of  the  countrv  under  sucli  a  condition  of  thintj^  involves 


palp 


Ipabl 


e  contradiction. 


It 


won 


Id  1 


)e   more  correct  to  liken  the 


situation  of  the  coninninitN'  to  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  town 
subjected  to  a  i^eneral  conilanration.  in  which  some  became  sud- 
denly enriched  by  carryiiiLJ  oil'  the  valuables,  while  tiie  mass 
were   imolved   in    ruin  and   destitution. 

It  mav  be  objected  to  the  \iew  here  taken,  but  wiiich  is  founded 
upon  facts  that  hardlv  admit  of  controversv,  that,  had  the  con- 
dition of  the  country  been  sucli  as  is  represented,  we  mustha\e 
sunk  under  the  ureater  ellbrts  we  were  so  soon  alter  called  on  to 
sustain  ;  and  there  is  everv  reason    to  believe   that,  but  Ibr  the  in- 


vention ot  the  spmninj^-jenny,  and  tlie  impro\ements  in  tlie 
steam-enL;;ine,  which  have  protluced  such  almost  magical  etVects 
upon  the  productive  ener'^ies  of  this  kin<^dom,  it  would  have  been 
imnossil>le  to  iiave  withstood  the  combination  with  which,  siii'-le- 


Tl 


le   miuuier  and  de- 


handed,  we  were  called  uixm  to  contend, 
gree  in  which  these  powerful  agents  have  enabled  us  to  with- 
stand and  to  triumph  over  dilliculties  un|:>aralleled  in  the  history 
of  the  world,  have  l)een  shown  in  a  preceding  section  of  this  in- 
quiry. 


'^'^M.- 


ClIAVTER    II. 

Thk  public  expenditure  of  England  during  the  war  which 
was  begun  in  17(^3,  and  continued  (witii  short  intermissions  in 
l8or  and  1S14)  until  the  final  overthrow  of  Napoleon  in  iSi^, 
was  conducted  throughout  upon  a  truly  gigantic  scale.  In  1792, 
the  last  }ear  of  peace,  the  entire  public  expeiuliture  of  the  king- 
dom was  i,"  i(j. 8^9.  IJ3.  which  sum  included  ,t\), 767.333  interest 
upon  the  jmblic  debt.  In  1814  the  current  expenditure  amounted 
to  ^"76, 780, 8()5.  and  the  interest  upon  the  debt  to  £30.0^1,36^, 
making  an  aggregate  sum  of  .£106.832.260  paid  out  of  the  |)ublic 
exchecjuer  for  tlie  disbursements  of  tiiat  one  year.  This  is  the 
largest  annual  outlav  ever  made  ;  that  of  the  previous  year  was 
within  one  million  of  the  same  amount. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  that  the  public  expenditure  could 
have  been  long  continued  upon  this  scale  of  magnitude  ;  the  state 
of  exhaustion  under  which  the  country  was  made  to  suffer,  dur- 
ing the  fust  few  years  of  the  peace  that  followed,  sulUciently  attests 
the  truth  of  this  opinion.     The  financial  etVorts  of  the  y;overnment 


;  ■  yi 


ii6 


SELECTIONS. 


Iiad  bccMi  miidc  for  several  preceding;  \cais  with  a  dciL^ree  of  lavish 
l)r()fiisii)ii  tluit  was  coiitimially  aunuiiU'iitcd  until  it  readied  the 
height  al)<)\e  mentioned  ;  the  expenditure,  ineludiii!^  interest  iipcjii 
the  delit.  »lurinir  the  ten  years,  tVoni  iSo6  to  1815,  inclusive,  aver- 
aj^ed  fS.i.of'jy.yr)!  per  annum,  sums  wiiicii,  until  tiie  \ears  in 
w  Inch  they  were  actually  expended,  it  would  ha\e  been  consid- 
ered \\holl\  chimerical  to  expect  to  raise,  'ihe  experience  ol  tiiat 
period  has  shown  how  impossible  a  thin^^  it  is  to  jud^e  correctlv 
from  the  past  as  to  the  Ljrowinij  resources  of  our  countrv,  or  it 
mi,L,Hit  be  conildentlv  ailirmed  that,  during"  the  conchidinLJ  years  of 
this  series,  we  had  assuredly  reached  the  limit  of  possibility. 
Williout  that  experience  for  their  guidance,  our  ancestors,  in  for- 
mer but  not  \  ci'\  remote  times,  ij^ave  \va\  to  i;loom\  tbrebodiu^s  as 
to  their  I'uture  pros|)ects,  at  which  we  cannot  but  smile,  when 
thinking;  of  the  C()m|)arativelv  ])i;^Mny  ellbrts  which  called  them 
fortii.  Some  of  tiiose  tbrel)odinL;s  have  been  recorded  bv  Sir 
John  .Siiiclaii.  in  his  work  on  the  public  revenue  of  this  kingdom. 
A  few  passai^es  upon  tiie  subiect.  taken  from  that  woik,  and  witli 


tl 


le  dates  at  which  thev  were  written,  mav  not  be  without  interest 


to  the  readei'  at  the  i:)resent  moment. 


[736. 


The  vast   load  of  debt   under  which    the    nation   still 


groans  is  the  ti'ue  source  of  all  those  calamities  and  jrloomv  pros- 
pects of  whicii  we  have  so  much  reason  to  complain.  To  this 
has  been  owin;^  that  multiplicity  of  burthensome  ta\es  which  iiave 
more  than  doubled  the  ])rice  of  the  conuuon  necessaries  of  life 
within  a  few  \ears  past,  and  thereby  distressetl  the  poor  laborer 
and  manut'acturer,  disabled  the  farmer  to  pay  his  rent,  and  put 
even  gentlemen  of  plentiful  estates  under  the  <^reatest  diiliculties 
to  make  a  tolerable  provision  for  their  faiuilies." —  7 Vic  Crajts- 


luaii . 


No.  soi,  14th  I'Y'burary,  1736. 


At  the  time  this  glooniv  picture  was  dra.wn  the  public  debt  did 
not  exceed  t'50. 000.000,  antl  the  amuial  charj^e  on  that  account 
was  somewhat   inuler  .£'2,000,000,  being  consi(ler:d)ly  below  the 


sums  adiled 


to  tl 


le 


pu 


blic  burthens  in  the  sinu'lc  vear  181 


4- 


1749.  '*  Our  parliamentary  aids,  from  the  year  i7-|f>  exclusively, 
to  the  year  1748  inclusively,  amount  to  £55.522, 159  i6s.  3d.,  a 
Mil  i'lat  will  appear  increiliblc  to  future  generations,  and  is  so 
■A  nos'  to  the  present.  Till  we  have  paid  a  good  part  of  our 
di  ot,  and  restored  our  country  in  some  measure  to  her  former 
;\  •  '  and  power,  it  will  be  difficult  to  main»  hi  the  dignity  of 
Great  Britain,  to  make  her  respected  abroad,  and  secure  from  in- 


FIXAXCKS    or   KNCII.AND. 


117 


juries  or  even  aflVonts  on  the  j);irt  of  her  neiii^hliDrs,"  —  St>iiic 
Jicjlcctioiis  on  tlic  present  state  of  the  Nation^  hy  Iknry  St. 
JoliM,  Lord  I)oliii<fl)roke. 

I'he  (lelil,  to  the  ellects  of  wliich  s<-)  nuicli  evil  is  here  nltrihuled, 
\v;is  still  under  £So. 000,000.  and  the  aiuuial  interest  scarcely 
more  than  £'3.000.000. 

1756.  "  It  has  hcen  a  '^enerallv  received  notion  anioML,'  ]")oliti- 
cal  arithineticians.  that  we  ina\  increase  oui'  delit  to  1' ukj.ooo.- 
cjoo,  hut  the\'  acknow  ledL;'e  that  it  must  then  cease,  1)\  the  debtor 
hecomini;'  haid^rupt."  —  Letters  hv  Sanuiel  IIaima\.  I'.si]. 

In  the  few  years  that  preceded  the  jjuhlication  ot' Mr.  Ilannay's 
letters  the  deht  had  lieen  somewliat  diminished,  so  that  it 
amounted  to  ahout  1.' J" 5. 000, 000,  and  the  annual  cliari^e  on  the 
countrv  t(j  .£j. 400, OCX). 

1761.  "The  first  instance  of  a  debt  contracted  upon  jiarlia- 
mentarv  sccnritN'  occurs  in  the  reiLi^n  t)f  llenrx'  \'I.  The  com- 
mencement of  this  jiernicious  j^raclice  deseives  to  he  noted, — a 
j)ractice  the  more  likelv  to  become  jiernicious  tiie  nmre  a  nation 
advances  in  opulence  and  credit.  The  ruinous  etlects  of  if  are 
now  become  ap[)arent,  and  threaten  the  verv  existence  of  the 
nation."  —  Hume's  History  of  I£no-/ai/d^  S\'o  edition,  177^1 
vol.  iii.  p.  2  I  V 

The  public  luuthens  had  hv  this  time  so  far  exceeded  llie  pos- 
sible limit  assij^ned  by  Mr.  Ilannav.  thiat  the  deht  amounted  to 
nearly  ,€150.000.000,  and  the  annual  interest  to  t\i.So(),fjoo. 
The  amount  was  some\\  hat  reiluced  between  that  period  and  the 
breakinii^  out  of  the  American  war,  when  a  succession  of  loans 
a<;"ain  became  necessary.  On  windini^  up  the  accounts  of  that 
contest,  the  debt  amounted  to  €26S.ooo,ooo,  and  the  annual 
charii^e  to  i;9.5oo,ooo.  On  the  5th  of  Januarx-.  i7()-5.jusl  before 
the  he^innini;  of  the  war  of  the  French  Rexohition.  liie  debt  con- 
tinued nearly  the  same  as  at  the  bejj^inniuL^  of  the  peace  (the  exact 
amount  of  funded  and  unt'unded  debt,  including'  th.e  value  of  ter- 
minable anmiities,  was  £261.73^,0^9,  and  the  annual  charL,'e  was 
.£9,471 .67^).  From  that  time  to  the  peace  ot"  Amiens  haidlv  a 
vear  passed  without  witnessinj^  some  increase  to  the  national 
burthens,  so  that  at  midsummer  (So3,  the  capital  of  the  lunded 
and  unfunded  debt  amounted  to  £637.000.000.  On  the  5th  of  Jan- 
uary, 1S16,  the  capital  was  £885.186,323,  and  tlie  annual  char<ife 
was  £32.457.141.  The  followiiv^  statements  exhibit  the  proj^res^ 
bivc    state  of  tlie  public  income  and  expenditure   from    1792   to 


i  j  liii 


5,    V 


•^<i  th 


1 18 


SELECTIONS. 


Alxiiti'iK't  ftf  Piiltlif    Iiic-niiif   and    l''.t|i<-iiilitiir<-  In    tUf   Fiiit.t'd    KliiH<l4iiii 
in  t'lit'h  year,  from   I70'4  to  IHIIK 


79  J. 

7'X 

79.>- 

7(/). 

7V7- 
7>'S. 

7W- 

Suo 

Soi. 
Sfij. 
So,?. 
804. 
S,.5. 
S()i). 
S.J7. 
SoS. 

Sio. 
Si  I. 

Sl3. 

Si.i. 
Sr-j. 

Sis- 

Si  6. 

S17. 

SiS. 

Sig. 

Sii) 

S21. 

Sij 

S2,5. 

S..4. 

S2,:;. 
SiO. 
Sj7. 
S2S. 
S29. 
S,5o. 
S,i. 
S52. 

s,«. 

S.H- 
835- 
S36. 

8,^7  • 

S.^S. 

S39- 
S40. 
S41. 
843. 

S4.V 
S44. 

S45- 
Rf6. 


17' 


S4S. 
849. 


INCOME. 


Vr.AKs. 


:2  s 


''^.7ts.y'.v 

7i.'.U.5(',< 
7i.Jiii,5iJ 
6j,2r.4.5|'i 

S.?w  t7.7'.'5 


i''.'~l^-7'5  •(.'^77  "5"  -l,7-.>."" 

311,10^.1174  ().l„N.?S.y  27,llyl,4<i5 

'9.'^S.5-"  .I'l.V'l^U  5".U^..i5' 

2i,|5),72S;  2j..'(c<»^-  ■»5.'"<;.7i" 

2,?,i."-,u|n  ,V'.vV>.'^73  53. P.;.""'? 

,ii,n.Vi,.Vv;  1>>,\;S.5,,^  47.N,i>>i 

,vS."'i-MU  -i-7'l.'^M  57-.i'7vV'7 

,vl.i45,5S(  j^.i,^o,;jij  57'i7".".i 

.vt.'i.v'l"  -'7'.V'5.-!7'  '''••l"'^.('7 

.V'-.V'^.M"'  't-",i^--51  5>-"'''-l".i 

,?^,niK»..V^.'  8,752,71.1  47-V''.',iS,? 

4(',i7(.,4„.'  i4..;7.',7'.s  "0,747,. -55 

5".'^"7'7""  "•■,'^("■'^'1  ''7-7t7-?"7 

.S'la^'.-i-"  '"•4.i''.<',U  "i..77-'-55 

iij()iiS,u)i  I2,cnj;,''|4  7;,ii,;,j',5 

f\\.-;ia,\'vi  i2,ji^,i7<,  7",o'7.77ii 

,    "7''-H-5(J  7-7^'--414  74.".V'.V"^| 

''5.i7.^'5t5  i'».'4S-<'5.i  '*4v?'7.10 

'''5.".i7''^5"  •*4-7</''*\'7  S'.^-'^'5I7 

.?<y/i4(),2^2  ir.^,;,07,fi45 

.54-5".v'"'.i  loj.'x,'^,!") 

2n,.-(l,S(i;  02.)52..U<' 

5i4,f.5</  6j,77><.'k  5 

5-."55."'.i 

,    ......       5.i'747>7'>5 

'    5-."l~^.Sl7      5-."t^.'^t7 

5(,jsj..i5S     5i,.'8j,,j5s 

55'^.vi,ii/j     J5,><v(|i''- 

55>"".V"5' 5^-'''>.^''5" 

57."7-.'"'V     57-''7-'>/'>.» 

5.).,10-',4ii,i     5i,,v'-,4".i 

57'-7i''^"''     57'-7v'^''y 

5liN4.i>^^)     5l.'"*'4''A' 

54,i);j.5i'<      5),.,;.', 5'^ 

\:    55.1S7.112      55,is7.i42 

So,7'^(),i.S2     ,  5(i,7>')/>S2 

';    5o,(  5f.,(.i()     5o,'-i56,''ii6; 

■I".  I- 1-14"     46.424.440 

4".'AS,7;;  3.U.0S9  47, ,-,22.744 

;     4"-27".3-"     4''.-'7'  .i2" 

'   4(.,425,2r,i     4(1,125. 2r.,; 

;;    45.Su.i,,v>g     4^,N3.,5''«' 

I:    48,501, iS{i     48^,1,1, 1*^,1 

i     4''M75.hM      4''.475.'o4 

47.vvM"< A7.^i.\,Vi 

\.    47,841,8,^,      47.s44.8yrj 

i     47..^"7o'>5     '  47.5"7..5"5 

I     48,0^4,  VHi  85  5.0.57  4'^.','a7..W7 

4",i/i5,'\<i  I,'>i4,3cj5  \^.^'<<i,n>f> 

h;    52,582,817 52,582>i7 

|,    54,003.751     •••  S4."'3-75t 

Ij    53."f^"..V^I     S3,'i^)o,.?54 

'    5.^700, 1. ^s     5?.79"-i.?*< 

51.510,205  7.47'>.353  .59.".J->.''"7 

■  1      53.3^8,717  1,505,045  54..,82,t/)2 

li_5'*>95'.749^ 371.5^^ S3.3^.3'7 


Exi'i.MiirrKE. 


-3  c  !- 

.=.  ..   3  S 


.-*---   ^ 


u 


C  " 
3   3 

ii 

"^  a, 
h 


.^9.7'''7.333 
0,437.802 

9,8()0,y()4 

10,^10,728 
11,8)1,2.14 

i4,.i7o,f.io 
'7.5\^.5iS 

I7.2J...oS,5 

'7.,i^'-5"i 
10.0(5,02  I 

'9.S55.588, 
20,''x/j,8rt  I 
20,72^,772 
22,141,420 

2  ?,0<)0,(K)0 

<;.3"-'."^5 

2,5.158,i,S2 

-'4.-"3.^"7 
24.240,010 
24.077,015 
-5.54'''5"^ 
28,0.50, 2.V' 

30.'\5',.V'5 
3'.57''."74 
3^.93^.75'; 
3'.4V',245 
,50.880,244 
150,807.219 
3'.'57.'^4" 
3'-955.;<''4 
20,021,49.5 
29,215.005 
29,1 /«).. 550 

28,076,957 
28,2,50,847 

28,095, 5o<V 

29,155,912 

2..;,ri8,Ss8: 

28,541.416 

^S,  52  5,75 1 

28,522.,5n7 

28,5o4,(k/) 

28,514,610 

20,24.5,598 

.*9,4S.S7' 

29,2fVl,2.50 

.2»^.454."''^j 
29,.58i,7i8 
29,4.50,1451 

2.;,4!8,I2o| 
29, 269. 160 

.l".»9S.459| 
28,253,^72 
aS,o'77.yS7, 
^■^.141.5311 
.'S,.565.5'7, 
28,52,5.9611 


^2,421,681  £  7,070,1(10 
14,7.59,208 
17.851,21,5 
,57,00.5,440, 
i".,'31.ii^7 

.50,  )(.(,, i.g  5 

.>3,5|i.7-7 
.^^,405,421 

,50,150,70" 

4''.iS3.555 
2o,"<,(.5.6i9, 
28,208,50(1 
3S,"40,4,>6; 
45,027,Sy2 

4  5.011, -'05 
4  I  •-,50. ,557 
40t9""|.i"5 
5-..>5-M4" 
52,618.^102 
5S-757'3oS 
6,5,2io,8i(i 
7'7.'"3.I'^S 
70.7^0,805 
"0,71  i.(,lo(i 
,52.2,51,020: 
22,018,170 
20,81.5,728, 
^M.V'.'.V'i 
21, .58 1,582 
2i,o7o,>;25 

2(),826,5('i7 

21,740,1 10, 

2,5.708,252 

23'55".7I' 
25.8,  ,s, 585 

25..S"o,44''' 
21.407,670: 

11^919,522 

18,021,085 
l8,7S|,,8,><'2, 
18,050,215 

16,2  55.7,55 
16. ,597. 01 15 


1,826,81  1 1 
1  ,624,(100 

3."'3.'.<o 
l,9i8,oii_,i 

4.i"l.457| 

2,1/12,.50|| 

5,201,725 

'''i45".55": 
9.(jon,725; 

'.'95 '53' , 
2,02.5,028; 

4,607,9(15  j 
2,760,00.5! 
1,9,55,4(15; 
^.673.S58: 

5,(H,"i 
I,02"5,784l 

i.77"..i7S. 

1,270,050! 

i,5(/).727| 

■.9S5.S85: 

7,49"| 

S.OH'l 


S,7,i! 

I..'i^<.,?"', 

4.'43.S3' 


21,074 


15.'^N."I9 
I7.-',5S,871 
i7-''4''3S3 
18.418,449 
19,9  15,(121) 
10.779,818 

2".7,\5i5S4 
21,517,0.19 
21,870.55.5 
20,152,189 
20,o88.,84(i 
22,805,8(5 
26, ,501, 416, 
2;  ,621,(1 10, 
2J,,529,('i6i| 


,£l((,85(,.12,J 

24,197,070 
37i74-»."7 
4'^.t'4.'77 
42,175,291 

50,740,609 

5 '.1 27. •'45 
55,624,404 
50,821,267 
(11,329,179 
49.549, 207 
48,(^08,2,50 
50, ,576,20s 
67,i"<;,3iS 

6^,9)1,211 

(17,(11,5,042 

73. '43.1^87 
7o,5(Vi,oi,? 

76.'^"5.54S 
83.7.^5.223 

SS,757.3-!4 
'05.043.7-7 

100,852, 2(« 
92,380,180 

6S,i(Kj.77i 
.55. -'Si, 2,58 
.s3.,vtS,578 
55. 40'', 5' 0 
54.4S7'.»47 
57.i.V'-S86 
5,5,710,(124 
.50.22.5,740 
,59,2,51,161 

61  5-0,753 
55. oS  1,073 

55.823,321 
.54. '7'. '4' 
5 '.8, 55. '.^7 
49,078,108 

49,797.1.56 
46,,579,692 
45,782,026 
4(1,678  079 
45  •""9.309 
48,09,5,10 
40,116,8,59 
47,686,183 

49..?57.<^J' 

49,169,552 
,50,185,729 
50.945,161) 
S' ''48,2,54 

S3, 21  l,OOt) 

59,3S<'.^'03 
50,943,8,50 
5),5o2,947 
5), 185, 1,56 
50,874,696 


a 
a 
e 

m 

B 


fi 


c 


if. 

I 


^« 

So 

ex 

<« 


:^  b  E 


FINANCES   OF   ENC.I.AND. 


c  3  '«-/-  c  2  o  c  0  'A  -;r  .1^  I/-,'/-  ~^T0  o-r-oo  ;o 

";  '^  i  i;"r,  |.»  C  c   c   :>•  *i  </■."•/   c   -r  *i  i/",  :r  t'.  -i  r  7   Tr 

•    ".  J    -    7  "t-  ^  -•  'f  C   -^  ^r  ^  i  /  W  ''l  *r  i  I^  «  iri  -f  c*  -f  -^ 

^  -    -^  •»■  >C  l-»  -  tjv  !■»       «   ^  »0  CO  "".'./.  'O  -   2   C   1/1  >o 


I  19 


0 


c  3  u 


-.'-lr-*t 

-*1^  ••»?•••'? 

,  f»  ir.i-«  n  c  "1 

|*»    C   1^ 

-f  =.c 

-o 

,  -^  ;>  ^  I  -  c  -t-  o  '^  -t- ' 


■  -c  c/j  -  c  o  «  o  c  ci- 


^  ^  irj  n-  '^  1/1 1/1 1/1  'O  -t-  -^  ^  »r)  "1-  i/i  -^  -1-  in  '^  wi  i/i  tf  lo  'O  ^  ^ 


y 

c 

3 

e 
c 


C 


c  s  - 


'n^ 

3 

Q 

-i 

i:  : 

5-:^;r 


6,' 


M 


^ 


§5 


N    "I    C 
*»  C   _ 

-r  5-  "1 


ill 


1-  •  vi  '1 


-32'' 

i  i  i  'i 
^7   ',  n 


II  2 


s  ° 
=  '"■! 

i/'c/T 


I III §^5 

C    Q    G   c    O   ir  -I 

O    -■    'T  -r  1"  7«  I/-. 

-*-  c^  -^  <^  *t  -t-  I  ^ 


5  ;  ?  ;  ^. 


::?8 

"'    R     * 

•    C   I^ 

.   »r  'r, 

-^'-'  : 

L"  ""' 

—   "1     . 

•    -1    ir. 

(/    1^   • 

-  c*    ; 

"H.y_. 


(^ 


2  S 


c  -yT 


5  S  S  2  2  2 
c  !  :  2  i  ^ 

ir,  i/~,  ir,  „    •!   ir; 


% 


t&c?.  :^cB'i'c 


^ 


CO      cc  cc      V.  cA  X  in  X  c«  x 


.!<■ 


'hi' 

hn' 
i  tit 


(.     ,1 


i- 


I  \  \n 


I20 


SliLECTIONS. 


mi> 


$  a 


1.S49,  includinLj  the  ;inuii:il  cliar^i'  on  iiccouiit  ol'tho  pulilic  debt, 
and  the  amount  of  money  raised  In  loans  and  the  fnncMn;^  of  ICx- 
che(|ner  Kills,  with  the  amount  and  description  of  stock  created, 
and  the  annual  char;^^'  in  respect  of  the  same,  in  each  year  iVom 
the  he^^iimin^  of  the  present  century. 

An  extraordinary  decree  of  delusion  is  oliserxahle  in  the  pro- 
ceediuLjs  of  the  dillerent  llnance  ministers  hy  whom  the  support 
of  the  sinUin<jf-fund  was  advocated  duriujj;  the  war.  It  has  been 
pretended  that  the  purchases  made  hy  means  of  that  fund  had  the 
elVect  of  keeping  up  the  market  value  of  the  public  debt,  aiul 
thereby  enabled  the  minister  to  cv.itract  loans  upon  more  advan- 
ta<4eous  terms  than,  without  this  machinery,  would  have  been 
possible.  It  may  well  be  doubted,  however,  whether  the  repur- 
chase in  this  manner,  tVom  time  to  time,  of  parts  oidy  of  that 
surplus  portion  of  the  |)ublic  debt  which  was  created  for  the  ex- 
press ])urpose  of  such  operations,  had  any  leal  elle  t  in  raisiui^ 
the  piice  of  the  remainin;,;"  ])ortion  of  the  ])ublic  securities;  in 
otlier  words,  whether  the  i)rice,  thus  factitiously  acted  upon,  of 
the  larger  amount  c^f  debt,  was  at  anv  time  i^reater  than  the  price 
would  have  been  of  the  smaller  amount  of  debt  that  would  ha\e 
existed  if  the  sinkinj^-fu'id  had  not  been  created,  the  purchases 
of  the  commissioners  never  having?  in  fact  accom])lished  more 
than  the  repurchase  of  the  so-needlesslv-createil  part  of  the  debt. 
It  has  been  further  urged  in  defence  of  the  sinkinjr-t'und,  that 
the  prospect  which  it  enabled  the  minister  to  hold  out  of  the 
speedy  redemption  of  the  whole  debt  had  the  ellect  of  reconcilinj^ 
the  people  to  the  payment  of  a  larger  amount  of  taxes  than  they 
would  otherwise  have  been  willin<^  to  pay.  Allowing  that  the 
elTect  here  stated  was  produced,  we  may  still  doubt  the  wisdom  of 
that  government  which  is  obliged  to  resort  t(;  a  juggle  in  order 
to  reconcile  the  ];)eople  to  its  measures,  and  especiallv  when,  as 
in  the  case  under  examination,  the  delusion  was  so  expensive 
and  likely  to  prove  so  permanently  injurious  in  its  nature. 

The  average  rate  at  which  3  per  cent,  stock  was  created 
between  179,^  '"id  iSoi  was  £^'j  'js.  Cui.  of  money  for  £roo  stock, 
and  the  average  market  price  during^  that  period  was  i'6i  17^-.  6d. 
for  £100  stock.  The  loss  to  tlic  public  upon  the  additional  sum 
borrowed  in  order  that  it  might  be  redeemed  durinj;^  that  period, 
which  was  £49,655,53!,  amounted  to  four  and  a  half  per  cent., 
or  £3,234,500.  Between  1S03  and  the  termination  of  the  war, 
the  average  price  at  which  loans  were  contracted  was  £60  "js.  6d. 


w, 


nai 


anl 


eo 


cei 


m( 


fal 


I-INANl  T.S    OF    KNCI.ANI). 


121 


per  ^loo  stock,  and  the  avcraj^c  market  priee  duriiiLj  that  time 
was  .£62  lys.  (ni.  \)cv  JL'ioo.  J'lie  loss  was,  tlurefore,  two  and  u 
half  ])er  cent,  upon  the  sum  redeemed  duiinjf  that  time,  i,'i7(),- 
i73,i-|o.  or  £|.-|o.}.3-^i ,  maiviniL,'  to^etlier  an  amount  of'  JLV)/)^S,- 
S31  ahsohitely  lost  to  the  ]nil)lic  hy  thesi-  opi'rations.  'I'his 
amount,  reckoned  at  the  aveiaL;e  price  ol'  the  \arions  loans,  is 
equivalent  to  a  capital  of  ukuc  than  eleven  millions  of  ^  per 
cent,  slock,  with  which  the  country  is  now  additionally  hurthened 
throui^h  the  measure  (jf  horrowinjjf  in  a  de|)resscd  market  more 
money  than  was  wanted  in  order  to  its  hciiiL^  repaid  when  the 
market  for  public  securities  was  certain  to  he  iiinher.  The 
fallacy  atten(Iin<4  this  system  is  now  so  fully  recognized  that  it  is 
not  likelv  anv  minister  will  in  future  make  a  show  of  redeeminir 
debt  at  the  moment  when  circumstances  compel  him  actually  to 
increase  its  amount  for  that  purpose. 

Another  erior  of  a  still  more  impoitant  nature,  involved  in  this 
system,  remains  to  be  noticed.  'i'he  absurdity  oi'  bonowiui; 
money  in  order  to  extiuLJuish  (lel)t  could  never  ha\e  been  sciiously 
adopted  but  with  the  anticipation  of  the  ^ood  ellects  that  mi^ht 
be  drawn  from  such  a  course  after  the  necessity  for  further  bor- 
rowing^ should  cease,  when  it  miu;lit  be  beneficial  to  apply  towai'ds 
the  redemption  of  the  debt  the  hi;4h  scale  of  taxation  whicli  that 
system  rendered  practicable.  "J'hei'e  never  could  have  existed  any 
doubt  of  the  fact,  that  whenever  the  necessity  for  borrowiiH^ 
shouUI  cease,  the  market  \alueof  the  public  fuuils  would  advance 
fijreatly,  and  would  therefore  in  an  ecpial  (le<^ree  limit  the  redeem- 
in<j^  power  of  the  surplus  income,  however  arisinii^.  The  knowl- 
edge of  this  fact  should  have  led  the  ministers,  by  whom 
successive  additions  were  made  to  the  public  debt,  to  the  adop- 
tion of  a  course  which  wouKl  have  enabkd  them  to  turn  this  rise 
of  prices  to  the  advanta<^e  of  the  public,  instead  of  its  bein^;,  as 
it  has  proved,  productive  of  loss;  and  this  v\u\  would  certainly 
have  been  accomplished,  if  at  the  expense  of  a  small  present 
sacrifice,  the  loans  had  been  contracted  at  a  hi^h  rate  of  interest, 
instead  of  their  havin<^  been  irontracted,  as  for  the  most  ))art  they 
were,  in  3  per  cent,  annuities.  It  is  presumable  that,  if  the 
borrowinjj  had  been  restricted  to  the  sums  actuallv  wanted  from 
time  to  time,  without  thouj^ht  of  a  sinking-fund,  the  public 
might  possibly  have  had  to  pay  at  the  outside  a  quarter  per  cent, 
more  of  annual  interest  than  they  actually  paid.  At  this  rate  the 
deficiency  of  income  compared  with   expenditure,  between    1793 


I 


k"" 


)■  1 


■tl 


.-(l 


122 


Sia.KCTIO.NS. 


$  \i, 


and  iSi^,  wliiili  ainonnti'd,  as  will  lio  shown  in  the  next  Table, 
to  .i'.) J5.  iSj.761 ,  would  have  occasioned  an  addition  to  the  lapi- 
tal  of  the  (K-ht  to  the  amount  of  t' jsS«-'^>''>'5t4  <>'*  5  piT  iint. 
stotU.the  annual  inli-iest  of  which  would  have  heen  JL'J^.7''),^.- 
3J7,  instead  of  a  nominal  capital  ot*  .t's^T', 292,76.},  with  the 
ainuial  additional  chaise  of  .t'io, 690.87 1 .  At  the  close  of  the 
war  thi-  nominal  cajiital  of  tiie  deht  would  have  then  amoiniti'd 
to  t'7_'. ). 285,729,  and  t'.)e  annual  char<4e  to  .f32,53o,66(),  iustiad 
of  t'Si6.^M  .(^39  oi'  capital,  and  .€3()..|5S.2().p)f  annual  chaf;^e, 
which  was  the  state  of  the  umedeemed  puhlic  del)t  on  the  5th  of 
Jaiuiaiy,  1816.  The  <;.)vernnieMl  woulil  then  have  been  in  the 
most  favorable  jiosition  for  taUin;^^  advanta^Lje'  of  the  lowerin;,'  of  the 
rate  of  interest  whicii  was  certain  to  loljow,  and  manv  \ears  before 
the  present  time  the  whole  olthe  s  per  c<.'nt.  aniuiities  mij^ht  have 


tei'ii  con\erted,  Nvitliout  an\'  aildition 


to  tl 


le  capital,  uHo  annuit'es 


of  the  same  an.onnt,  bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  three  and  a 
half  per  cent.,  or  peiiiaps  lower.  Assumiui^,  however,  that  the 
reduction  would  not  have  ;j^one  lower  than  three  and  a  half  per 
cent.,  and  taUinjj;  into  consideration  the  surplus  re\enue  which 
has  been  actuallv  applied  to  the  redemption  of  tiebt  between  ^th 
January,  1816.  and  5th  January,  18.1.9,  which,  as  will  be  seen, 
amounted  to  ,£\j v779.o.}6,  the  funded  debt  cvistiu'L;'  on  ^th  of 
Jamiary,  18^7,  would  have  amounted  to  ,i,'678.5o6.68  :•.  ;uid  the 
animal  change  to  ,€2_^.747«734«  instead  of  its  actual  amount,  ,£"773,- 
168,316,  and  its  actual  aiuuial  change,  ,£'27,686,4^8  ;  showini:;  tiiat 
the  loss  entailed  on  tlie  countrv  bv  the  plan  pursued,  of  fundinjj^  the 
debt  in  stock  bearintj^  a  nominal  low  rate  of  interest,  is  £'94,661,- 
633  of  capital,  and  £.'3.9'^8.724  of  annual  charu'e.  It  is  not  pos- 
sible to  calculate  with  certainty  the  further  benelits  that  must  have 
resulted  from  the  repeal  of  tlve  millions  and  a  half  ot"  annual 
taxes,  which  would  have  been  })racticable  beyond  the  amount 
actuallv  repealed  ;  but  it  is  probably  much  un(ler-estimatinj>"  those 
benefits  to  state,  that  amonjj;  their  results  the  amount  of  public 
income  over  expenditure  would  have  been  so  far  auj^umented  that 
the  unredeemed  ilebt  would  not  at  this  time  have  exceetled  six 
hundred  millions,  while  the  annual  charije  upon  the  same  would 
have  been  twenty-one  millions,  a  state  of  thinjj^s  at  which,  if  the 
peace  of  Eur()|)e  should  continue  imdiatnrbcd,  and  if  our  proji^rcss 
should  only  equal  our  past  experience,  we  may  possibly  hope  to 
arrive  in  about  half  a  century. 

The  chartrc  of  inconsistency  on  the  part  of  our  finance  ministers 


I'lN.WCr.S    OI''    r.NCI.AM). 


J23 


is  (iilly  (U'servfd  by  tlii'ir  iulDptioii  of  two  im-MMirfs  liaviii<^  for 
tlii'ir  ohji'i'ts  rc'siilts  cxncllv  opposed  to  c:n.-\\  otlur.  'I'lu'si'  iiums- 
iiifs  i[\\\  liiNl.tlu'  cri'alioii  ol"  \\li:it  is  calli'd  tiu'  (U';i(l-\\cMj,dit 
Mimiiity  :  Mild  si'(.'on(lly,  llif  i'oii\i.Tsioii  of  pcipcliial  aiuuiitics  into 
aimuitiis  foi-  li\  l's  or  for  li'i  ins  of  scars  ;  thr  rtlrct  of  tin-  liist  ln'iiijr 
to  luint;'  prisi'iit  rdiif  at  the  c'\])i'iisi'  ot'  t'litun-  Ncars.  wliik'  tlio 
si'c'ftiid  iiu'fi-asi's  the  present  burthen  \\  ilh  the  \ie\v  of  feheviii«r  pos- 
terity. When  till-  nu'asure  tor  comniutiii'L;  tiie  lialf-pa\  and  pensions 
was  brought  forward  in  May.  iSi2,  tlie  ehar^e  upon  the  eountrv  on 
that  aeeoinit  was  I'stiuKited  at  aliout  li\e  millions.  This  was 
neeessariU'  a  decreasing'  eliar;^f.  and  fioni  \i'ar  to  \i'ar  tiu-  piil)lic 
would  ha\i'  hi'cn  relieved  In'  tiie  tallin'.;'  in  oi  li\cs.  initii  at  tho 
end  of  l'ort\-li\e  wars  tlie  w  liole,  aceortliii}^  to  proliahiiitx  ,  woidd 
have  lieen  eNtinuiiisiied.  In  order  to  turn  to  presi'ut  advantage 
tills  prospective  diniiiuition  of  l)urlhen.  it  was  attempted  to  com- 
mute tiie  whole  of  tliose  annually  diminishing-  paNineiits  into  an 
un\ar\  ini;"  annuit\  to  last  iKiritiL,^  the  w  hole  prohahle  term  of  tortv- 
li\e  years,  and  it  was  computed  that,  by  the  sale  of  a  fixed  an- 
nuit\  of  t'_'.S()O.C)0().  funds  mi^lit  I)e  obtained  in  order  to  meet  tlie 
diminishint;'  demands  of  the  (piarterlv  claimants.  This  scluane  was 
onlv  partialis'  carried  into  execution  b\  means  of  an  arrangement 
made  with  the  Hank  of  b^n^land.  under  which  tliat  cor])oration  ad- 
vanced to  the  iL;'o\c'rnnicut.  in  nearlv  eipial  pa\  nieiits.  diiiiuL;'  the 
six  years  from  iSj^  to  iSjS.  the  sum  of  .£ \t,.()^i)..[](j  as  the  pur- 
chase mone\'  of  an  annual  annuitv  ol"  ,£'s<'^v7-|''  '•*  '"^'  ]^:iid  until 
1S67.  The  result  of  this  operation  has  been  to  save  the  imme- 
diate p.'iN  nieut  dui'iiiLf  the  years  in  which  it  was  in  pro'^ress  of 
i.'9.574.(;79,  and  in  return  to  lix  upon  the  counti}-  the  annual  pay- 
ment tor  thirty-nine  years  thereafter  of  ,£585.7_(o. 

In  the  prosecution  of  the  opposite  plan  of  com  ei  tiiiLi;  ])erpetual 
annuities  into  annuities  terminable  at  stated  periods,  or  upon  the 
occurrence  of  certain  natural  contiii'^encies.  the  amount  of  termi- 
nable annuities  hasad\'anced  from  £.'t.SSS.8^^,  at  which  il  stood  at 
the  end  of  the  war,  to  .£3.755.099  at  the  be^inuinti;-  of  the  year 
1850.  It  would  occupy  considerable  space  toexhil)it  the  pro<;re.ss 
of  this  coiuersion  from  \ear  to  year,  and  it  will  ]irobabl\-  sullice 
to  exemplifv  tiie  result  of  the  operation  (lurin<f  one  year  (1834). 
In  that  vear  the  perpetual  annuities  received  in  exchaiu^'e  amounted 
to  £'6,500,169  of  capital.  bcarin;j[  an  annual  char<^e  of  JL':!Oi,83i, 
and  there  were  granted,  in  lieu  of  the  same  — 


II 


■i,, 


r  ' 


/it 


i  '  ir 


I 


I. 'I 


SI  1.1  r  1  iu\s. 


Amuiilu's  ti'i   li\  t's 

"  li>i   In  Ills  (i|    \  r.ii  s  . 

1  K'Iri  I  I'll  .inniiil  u's 

'riM'i'lluT 


.•,N/i 


.       l"sii,.V|^> 


even 
li\.  . 
I  ii  <  ill 

t  I  ml 


in.ikin'',  .1  pu'Miit  .iMiiii.il  iiiiTiMsr  ol  I'^oS;,!  |  In  llic  |)iil'lir  l>iii- 
lIuMi^  m  I'l.K'i  li>  iMiMiii'  llii'  I'.ii  lu'i  I'sl  iiuiimi  ol  llir  rli.ii  I'^c  nl 
..f.-o.'.S;i. 

It  is  M.'l  nrvrs'>,it\  In  u"  to  ini|iiiri'  wliii  li  ol  llusc  two  tuoilcs  of 
|M  >H  riilm-;  Is  pi  cUi  .il  ilr.  I  lulri  tlii'i'U'iit  v  iu  iimsl.iiu  cs  I'illici 
ol  ihrin  nii^lit  l>r  \\  isr  oi  piihU'iil,  ImM  il  is  i|iiilr  iiiipossilijr  ||i;it 
,it  tlu-  s.iMu-  lmu'..iiiil  i'onsi'«|iunl  l\  uiiili'i  llir  siiiir  riuiiiiisl.iiu  cs, 
I'oili  .oiilvl  1h-  rillu'i  \\  i^i-  ol  jii  ihlriil,  .iml  llir  miiiisli'i  .mkI  Kims- 
l,il(>is  l>\  whom  llu'  plans  wcir  ptoposi>,i  .nul  s.iiulioiirii  iiuisl  In- 
.illowtsllo  li.i\r  sliilliru'il  llu'iiisrU  rs  li\  llir  opri  .il  ions.  (  >l  llic 
I  w  o  i.'om  SI'S  tli.il  is  .isMiu'ilU  llu'  inosi  m'lui  "lis,  w  lii»  li  snhjci  Is 
till'  p.iilii's  1>\  whom  il  is  .ulopti'i!  to  ailtlil  ion.i  I  luiilhrii  in  oiiK-i 
to  liLvhu-n  thv'  lo.iil  toi  llu'ii  siu'irssois,  .iiul  iiiilrrd  it  woiiM  scrni 
no  moir  th.in  .in  .ul  ol  insiuT  on  llu-  p.iit  ol  lliosi'  h\  whom  llu- 
iK'l't  w.is  v'.Mili  .utrd  to  .ulopt  oMTN  iiu'.ms  within  tluir  powt-r  |oi 
its  I'M  iiK Hon. 

It  is  sinful. n  th.il,  with  so  nuu'h  ONpoiIiMUT  and  so  inmii  ol 
sciint  I'u"  .K'qniu'nu'iit  th.il  I'oniil  li.ivi"  lu'i-ii  hrou^ht  to  llu'  roin-it 
I'huid.uiiiii  o[  this  suhji'v.!,  llu-  t.ihlrs  adoptrd  for  tlu'  iTi'ation  o| 
ti'i  niin.iMr  .mniiitics  wi'ii"  iiu"on(.'t.'t,  to  ,i  ilr^irr  which  I'lit.iiK'il  a 
lu'.ix  \  loss  upon  tlu"  piiMii".  riu'svsti'iu  w  ,is  rstahlislu'd  in  iSoS, 
aiul  liming  tlu-  liisl  M'.ir  ol"  its  opi-ralion  annnitirs  wi'ir  granted 
to  t!u>  .inioiint  ol"l'>S.^o(i  lo.v.  por  annum.  ()t'that  amount  tluTc 
i.'0!Ui:uu\l  p.i\  .ih'u"  i.'_\^.  JS  I  piT  annmu  at  tiio  iH'i^iuiiiiiL;' <il"  iSjJ", 
wht'ii.  to  .ulopt  tho  oak'ulation  ot'tlu'  aotnaix  ot  tlu'  national  dcht, 
as'-  ;^i\oii  in  .i  report  to  the  (.'haiKTllor  ot  the  l-\elK'i|iK'r.  the 
puMie  h.id  alreads  susi. lined  a  loss  ol  more  lli.m  .I'id  ;kjo  'h'  the 
tr.in'.ietions.  besides  ha\  iiiL^-  the  al>o\e  annual  suui  ot'  t'j_^,.:^i 
still  to  pay  tor  .m  indelinite  terni.  In  this  report  ot"  Mr.  I'^inlaison 
he  states  that  the  loss  to  the  puMie  throuL^'h  misealculation  in 
these    tables  was    then    (^April.    18^7)    proceed iiiij^   at    the    rate  ot" 


i.'S.(.xx)  per  \\  eei 


aiu 


1  iliirin«;-  the  three  preceding- months  had  ex- 


ceedetl  i\);.ooo.  The  iliseo\erv  ol"  this  blunder  h;ul  been  made 
and  [pressed  upon  the  attention  ot"  the  tinanee  minister  as  earlv  as 
1S19,  but  no  acti\e  steps  were  taken  to  remedy  it  until  iS^S,  aiul 


I  I\  \\<    I  S    (  .|      I  \(,|    wit.  I  J- 

(-\('ll  llirll  till'  I. lie.  ;il  wlilili  jlililiil  ii".  w  (I  ('  '' I  iiili'il  li|i'iii  lilt' 
ll\('.  i>l  ;l'.'i(|  |>il  .Mir,  wclc,  ;i|l(  I  ,1  liiiic,  l<i||ii(|  In  1  ii  ,<  .  i|i|i|tll\' 
I  Pl  I  ilil.lMc      In      llic      I  III!  (   ll.l'.cl  '1,      lll.ll       llir      V,"\  <    I  IIIIMliI       \^    IS      ;i'.'ili|l 

I  il  ill'. 'I'll   l<  I   mill  III  ('  .111(1   III  liiiiil    I  III'  ii'.'i'  .  iijiMii  \\  liM  li   I  ill    .iiiiinil  ii's 

(   IlIlM     I  K-    <  >l>l.lllll'l  I. 

Il  1'.  i|iiilc  iiii|  iii'i  .ililr  lll.ll  ,iii\  'iiiiil.ii  Ml  Ic.  (>r  MiiimIci'.  (  (iiiM 
li. nc  lu'cii  I  Mill  iiiillci  I  li\  ;iii\'  |)ii\,ilc  |iii  1)1,'.  Ill  ,1  ' ..  i.ili'iii  I.I 
illdiv  iiJll.iI'M  wIki'.c  \l"il,lliir  WDlilil  li;i\c  hccli  lillii  m  iit|\  |iii'- 
sci\((l  1>\  llicii  |)ii\.ilc  iiiliic'.l;  ;iimI  iI  i'.  ills;' i  .m  i  liil  lli.it  llir 
<..M  >\  It  iitni'iil ,  \\  I  III  1 1  I  I  It  I  Id  ;il  .ill  I  iiiH  '.  n  iiinii.iiM  I  I  lie  ;is  .i  .l.i  iii  c  iit 
I  III'  11)1  isl  ,l<  I  I  iiii|il  i'dii'ij  ;i(  1 11,11  ics,  '.III  i|  ill  I  li;i\  I'  l.ill>  ii  liil<  i  I  Im  iii.  1 1 
IS  \  el  Mil  H  f  1 1  is"  I  .11  I  fill  I  li.lt ,  ;illr|  I  lie  i'\  il  Ii.hI  1  Hiiiilr.i  '.\  ck  i|  .iimI 
I  II  cssc-il  II I  II  III  il  X  111  il  K  c.  si  »  lii:ili\  sells  Will  'lllIil  ri  I  |i ,  cl.i  |  ,-.i-  I  u  |i  ,1  c 
;in\    slc|>  w.is  l.ik.ii  In  |iiil  ;i  slnp  Im  iIk-  w.i'Ii'  oI    piiMi iins  . 

1 1  W  I  Hill  I  1  >'i|lli  I  ('  :i  \  III  lllllilH  Ills  .11  I  Ml  ml  In  I"-.  1 1 1. 1  111  .'ill  llir  liirill- 
(  i,ll  iiprl  ;ll  II  HIS  111  I  I  ir  'ji  i\  rl  ll  li  iriil  i  III  I  i  1 1"  I  I  ir  jn  1  1mi|  r  i  i  i  I  ,|  ,i(  ii  |  in 
llir  Ii)ir;_;i  >lll';  sl.il  iiiir  iil  s.  In  llir  r.iilirr  \r.il  i.l  tli.it  liiiir.  whijr 
nil  tlir  (llir  1 1;  11  111  llir  miiiislrl  \\  ,is  ;illliii.ill\  I  ml  1 1 1\\  ill"  inim'ii  r  ■  lliiis 
Im  llir  |>I|IiIk  srixiic.  ;ill  r\j)r|isi\r  iii.k  liiiiri\  \\,is.  ;i>  we  li.i\r 
srrii,  rni|)lM\('i|  Id  krr|)  n|i  ;i  sliow  o!  ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  isl  1 1  ir..;  llir  drlil.  ;in'l 
li\  I  his  iiicins  tlir  |)rM|)lr  \\  rl  c  III  iiii'^lil  I')  \  ii\\  Willi  '"iiiir  di'j,  I  cr 
(i|  n  pni|)l.u(iu\  llir  niMsl  rniiiMiis  .idditiMii  Im  ihrii  Inn  t  Ik  n-,.  iindrr 
llir  r\|)i-(.  IJlidll  111  the  Irlirl  W  llii  ll.  1  hi  Mii.dl  llir  lll.l'_;ii  .ll  rllri  t  <  >{ 
tin-  silikiii'4  liilid,  w;is  Id  Iu-  r\|)rl  iriii cd  li\  ihriii  ill  tllllllr  \r,ils. 
Ihr  rsl.ililisliinriil  ;ind  siippoit  nl  this  sink  iir^-l  iind  w;i^  Imii'4  i  mii- 
sidrifd  ;is  ;i  iiiasU'i-slioki'  ot  luiniiin  wisdoin.  I  l,i\  iir^  siinc  h;i(| 
siillii  ii'iit  o|)|)orliiiiit\'  for  lonsidrriiiLr  its  rllists,  we  li.i\  r  ,n  rl\  rd 
;it  a  ditli'!  (.'lit  ^onlusion,  and  (.an  no  loii'^cr  see  ;in\  wi^dnni  in  tiic 
plan  (if  hnnow  in'4  lai'^rr  snins  than  wen-  waiilrd.  and  pisii  'j  in 
ei)iisr(|iii'iur  nimx-  (U'.-nlv  lor  tin-  loan  ol  w  li.it  w.is  a(..tii.dlv 
iiHiniivd.  in  ordrr  to  la\'  ont  tlu'  surplus  to  .hi  nmiilatr  into  ,i  thud 
tor  l)U\iii;_;  up  tlir  drlit  at  a  hiL;liri'  piicr  than  that  at  which  il  was 
conttaL'trd. 

In  the  I'ourtli  fcpoil  of  the  Select  Coniinitt(.e  on  I'uliiic  Income 
and  Ivxpendituie,  which  was  printed  1)\ ordri  ol  the  lloiise  of 
Commons,  in  i.Sj.S,  tiieie  are  three  stateiiients  sliowin'.^  the  ditler- 
ence  between  the  public  receipts  and  disbnrsenieiit^  in  the  ten 
}ears  ended  51)1  January,  iSf;2  ;  the  fourteen  yeais  ended  ^th 
January,  iSk^;  and  the  twelve  \eavs  ended  5th  JaiUKU_\ .  182S;  an 
abstract  of  wliicli  is  here  <^iven,  and  the  statement  is  further  con- 
tinued for  the  twenty-two  years  ended  5th  January,  1650:  — 


( 

1 

;  *  111'        '■ 


•T  i 


f' 


8   •!!*  i^' 


126 


SELECTIONS. 


BAI.ANTI-:   OF   IXCOME   A\D    EXPi: XDITURE. 

7'(V/    }',;//:<:  ,■//(/,',/ j//i  J.nniarv,  iSoj. 
Ex|KMKliliire  .    /:4-»7-'^'^,77.r  Kai^^cl   l.v  crcatiuii  of 

IiiLouic      .      .       25S,()5i;.jj2  ;       (lcl)t 

A])i)lic<l  to  rc(Icm])tioii 

"f  <lcl)t      .      .      .     ./ 1  So,  346, 440 
Money  raise. 1  for 

Austria      ....  4,600,000 

Discount  and   cliarj^'t 

of  receipt       .      .  2,416,497 


/■j'^^o, 997,380 


•S7'3f'2,937 


n  1  .IT  >^"'y3.C.34,443 

Balance    5tli  January, 

\^^^     ■     •     ■     ■     .      /9-027.021 
Isalance   5th    January, 

'7y2 4,54fj,029 

4,480,992 


l-lxpcnditure 
more  tlian 
ino.nie  .     .  ^189,153,451 

Fourticn   Vcays  <-tuh'd ^^th  Janudry,  1S16. 
Expcn.liture /"l,059,(),S3.37o  I  Raised  by  creation  of 

' 823,354,000         delit 

Applied  to  redemption 

ofdeht      ....  /"65 1, 952,65 1 
Raised    lor   East  India 

Company  ....  2,500,000 

Discount,  etc.   .      .      .  2,SS7,i';9 


Income 


^"'^"^y.' 53-45' 


900,107.717 


EN|>enditure 
more  than 
income  . 

Income 
Expenditure  . 


Balance  5th   January, 

,.  ^^'^'  •     •     •     •  '•    ^^15,465,578 

Balance  51)1   January, 

•'^"2 9,027,021 


657-3.39,^50 
;6'242,767,867 


236,329-3>o 

T-i'i-lVi-   Wars  ended j;th  Juunary,  1S2S. 
670,198,286 


040,906,521 


Applied  to  redemption 
of  debt      .... 

Discount  and  charges 
of  receipt      .     .     . 

Raised  bv  creation  of 
liebt     .'.... 


Income  more 
than  expen- 
diture   .     .     ^29,231,765 


Balance  5th   January, 

uSi^'  ...     .  '.    ^15,465.578 

l)alance  5th   January, 

'^^-8 4,228,753 


6,438,557 
.^236.329,310 

580,454,422 

544-588 

;^"58o,999,o40 

540,530,450 

;i"40,468,59o 


11,236,825 

;^29,23I,765 


FIXAXCKS   OF    KNC.T.AM). 


127 


7';iYi//y-/;co  iViiis  cmicd j^th  Jiniuary,  /Sja. 

Income  .     .    _^i,0(|2,2i(),672  1  A|ijilie<l  to  redt'iniiti.in 
Exiiciuliture       i,u75<<>45.j'Ji  :      of  debt,  hcyund  tlie 

aiiiinint  of  ilflit  crc- 

nli'd 

lJ;ilaiu;e    5th    Jami;iry 

UalaiKC  5tli  January, 

ibjy    ."     .  "  .      .     .  4,22S,75.5 


Income  more 
tlian  cxpcii- 
diluie    .     .     jCi  >, 5 74, 28 1 


/■  1 1,054,495 


5,5 1 9, 7^''' 
/,"i().574,2Si 


It  iippe.'ir.s  from  tliis  stateincnt  that  (lmiii<^  the  ten   }cars  from 
5 111  Jan.,  1792  t(j  5th  Jan.,  1S02  — 

The  public  expenditure  exceeded  the  income     .£189,1  ^3.. ^51 
Between  1802  and  1816  tlie  excess  of  expen- 

ihture  was  ......         236,-^29.310 


Excess  of  cxpenihture  durino-  twenty-four 
years  of  war       ...... 

Durinij  tliirty-four  years  of  peace,  between 
1816  and  1S50,  the  excess  of  income  over 
expenditure  has  been  .... 


£425,482,761 


45.779.046 


At  this  rate  it  wouhl  require  three  hundred  and  sixteen  years 
of  peace  to  cancel  the  debt  incurred  durinij  twenty-four  \ears  of 
war,  or  tliirteen  years  for  one  ;  but  tiie  comparison  is  even  more 
unfavorable  tiian  this,  because  at  the  time  of  borrowin*^  the  rate 
of  interest  is  hio^h  and  the  value  of  public  securities  low,  whereas 
at  the  time  of  licjuidation  the  reverse  of  these  circumstances  is  ex- 
perienced, so  that  on  tlie  most  favorable  supposition  it  recpiires 
fifteen  years  of  saving  in  peace  to  repair  the  evil  consecjuences  of 
one  year  of  war  expenditure  ;  at  which  rate,  our  successors  who 
may  be  living  about  the  close  of  the  twent\ -second  centurv  will 
find  tiiemselves  relieved  from  that  portion  of  the  public  debt  which 
has  been  contracted  since  1792.  On  the  other  hand,  tliispeiiod 
would  be  somewhat  hastened  tlnough  the  extinction  of  that  part 
of  public  debt  which  consists  of  terminable  and   life  lumuities. 

It  is  necessary  here  to  explain  briefly  the  financial  plans  which 
have  at  ditVerent  times  within  the  present  century  been  proj^osed 
by  the  Government  and  sanctioned  by  Parliament. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in  1803,  it  became  necessary  to 
meet  as  far  as  possible  the  increased  expenditure  of  the  country  by 


I'li'l 


JH|    )|i< 


i\ 


li 


w 


IFilV 


128 


SELECTIONS. 


w 


the  imposition  of  new  taxes,  among  wliich  was  included  the  in- 
come-tax, under  the  name  of  a  property-tax.  The  <(ieatcr  part  of 
these  taxes  were  dechired  to  be  of  a  temporary  character,  and  were 
to  cease  in  bix  months  after  the  reestablishmeut  of  peace.  It  soon 
became  apparent,  however,  that  to  adhere  to  this  stipidation 
would  be  impossible,  since  the  exigencies  of  the  country  recpiired 
the  contraction  of  loans,  the  interest  of  which  could  not  be  pro- 
vided, except  by  the  gradual  appropriation  of  one  portion  after 
anotlier  of  the  proceetis  of  the  war  taxes.  Under  these  circum- 
stanves,  it  was  proposed,  in  1S07,  by  Lord  Henry  Petty,  then 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  to  depart  from  the  usual  practice 
of  confining  the  financial  arrangements  to  the  current  vear,  and 
to  determine  at  once,  as  far  as  was  possible,  the  amount  which 
it  would  l)e  necessary  to  raise  during  each  one  of  a  series  of  vears, 
providing  beforehaiul  the  means  for  meeting  the  increasing  biu'- 
then.  It  was  assumed  that  the  loans  to  be  raised  in  1S07  and 
the  two  following  years  siiould  be  each  ij  1 2,000,000 ;  that  for 
iSio  was  staled  at  £14,000,000,  and  during  each  of  the  ten  en- 
suing years  the  amount  was  assumed  at  £16,000,000.  It  was 
calculated  that  the  interest  upon  those  loans  would  be  met,  up  to 
that  for  the  year  iSii,  by  tiie  falling  in  of  annuities,  after  which, 
the  war  taxes  were  to  be  pletlged,  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent., 
upon  each  loan  :  Wvc  per  cent,  to  pay  the  interest,  and  live  per 
cent,  to  accumulate  as  a  sinking-fund  for  discharging  the  principal. 
The  deficiencv  that  would  l)e  occasioned  by  this  appropriation 
year  by  year  of  the  war  taxes  was  to  be  met  by  sujiplementary 
loans  for  the  interest  on  which,  and  to  provide  a  sinking-fund  for 
their  redemption,  it  would  be  necessary  to  impose  new  taxes. 
IJy  these  means  it  was  expected  that  the  country  would  have  been 
able  to  meet  the  charges  of  an  expensive  war  during  a  series  of 
vears  with  only  a  moderate  additionto  the  public  burthens.  The 
ministrv.  of  which  Lord  Henry  Petty  formed  a  part,  having  gone 
out  of  othce  before  the  next  annual  finance  arrangement  was 
brougiit  forward,  his  plan  was  abandoned,  and  no  attempt  has 
since  been  made  by  any  minister  to  form  financial  arrangements 
embracing  the  circumstances  of  future  years. 

The  explanations  ofiered  each  year  in  the  House  of  Commons 
by  the  Chancellor  of  liie  Exchequer,  concerning  the  financial 
condition  of  the  country,  are  not  given  in  such  a  form  as  to  be 
readilv  understood.  In  the  accounts  by  which  the  statements  arc 
accompanied,  the  interest  of  the  debt  and  other  permanent  charges 


MNAXCKS    OF    ENCrWH. 


139 


are  not  iiicludccl.  and  on  tlu'  Dtlicr  hand  ixithin;:]^  is  statt'd  reij^ard- 


in<4"  tlie  piodncc 


)f  ll 


ic  pn  iDancnt    taxL's,  forniinLC   what   is  called 


the  consolidated  tnml,  except  the  amount  of  its  surphis  or  dell- 
ciencv,  as  the  case  mav  t)e,  altei'  providint^  for  the  permanent 
charLTC   u^ou   it.     The  Jyiniisct^  as  it  is   the    practice   to  call  this 


unuiai  e\i)()sition,  exiihinis  on  tlie  one  hand  the  sums  recimred  tor 


th 


thi 


)ul)lic   service  (liirnvj 


the   v 


ear,  un 


ler   the  ditlerent  lieads  of 


Navv,  Arnu'.  Ordnance,  and  Miscellaneous  Services.  toLi^ether 
with  an\  incidental  chaises  which  ma\applv  to  the  \ear  ;  and  on 
tlie  other  hand,  are  <^i\en  the  -.vays  and  means  tor  meelinL,''  the 
same.  These  wavs  and  means  consist  of  the  surplus  (if  am)  of 
tlie  consolidated  fund,  the  annual  duties,  and  such  incidental 
receipts  as  come  in   aid  of  the  national  resources. 

The  detail  of  these  bttdi:i'cts\\o\\\i\  consequently  throw  hut  little 
light  upon  the  llnancial  condition  of  the  country,  if  even  lliey  had 
heen  preserved  in  an  authentic  form,  which  has  not  heen  done. 
Anv  statements  of  the  kind  that  could  he  olVered  must  he  drawn 
from  nnauthorizetl  ]:)ul)licati()ns,  in  which  they  have  heen  <;iveii 
without  re;^ard  to  methodical  arrangement,  while, as  respects  some 
years  of  the  series,  we  should  seek  in  vain  for  any  statement  what- 
ever. 


ilr' 


<    Li 


\  ]  Iti 

It'   I  IHi 


ition 
|itai-y 
for 
lixes. 
heen 
f 


>s  o 


Tl 


le 


Ljone 

was 

has 

ients 


lions 
licial 
be 


|o 


arc 
hges 


130 


SELKCTIONS. 


VIII. 


THE    ZOLLVEREIN. 


I  :l 


From    Bow?'  .t;''-    Report    on    tiik    Prussian    Commkrciai.    Unmov, 
J\\RL.  Doc.   1S40,  Vol..  \\1.,  iM'.  I -17. 

In  compliance  with  tlie  iiisttuctif)iis  wliicli  I  liad  the  honor  to 
receive  from  vour  h)nlship.  chited  I"orei_Li:n  Ollice,  Jnlv  14,  1839, 
I  proceed  to  ro;''it  on  the  progress,  present  state,  antl  future 
prospects  <  >    i'k;  .Vu-sian  Commercial  Leat^ue. 

No  df  ul)t  thi>  ^  '  Union,  whicii  is  known  in  Germany  bv 
the  ifinie  f)l  iwe  X'/'  ]crc/n  or  Zo/l  Vcrbaiidc  (Foil  Associa- 
tion (.1  Alli>  I-  ■)  .  deri\v  ■  i.'^  !lrst  and  stronjj^est  influence  from  a 
desire  to  <^eiiid  <;"  tb  isi.  ■  rrl.'i-s  to  intercommunication  which 
the  separate  fiscal  leg-i^ial'o:,  •■'•he  various  .States  of  CJermany 
raised  amoni^  a  people  whom  natural  and  national  feelings,  as 
well  as  common  interests,  would  otherwise  have  connected  more 
intimately  and  permanently  together. 

'J'he  Zoll  Verein  represents,  in  (rermanv,  the  operation  of  tlie 
same  opinions  and  tendencies  which  have  already  etlectcd  so 
many  changes  in  the  commercial  legislation  of  other  countries. 
In  the  United  Kingdom  the  custom-house  laws  which  separated 
Scotland  and  Ireland  from  England,  have  been  superseded  by  a 
general  system  applicable  to  the  whole.  In  France  the  local  liar- 
riers  and  the  local  taritls  have  giyen  way  to  a  general  and  uniform 
system  of  taxation.  Even  before  tiie  Commercial  League  associ- 
ated so  many  States  in  a  common  union,  several  less  extensive  com- 
binations had  prepared  tiie  way  for  a  more  diirusive  intercourse. 
Between  the  States  which  do  not  form  part  of  the  Prussian 
League  —  as,  for  examj^le,  between  Hanover  and  llrunswick  and 
Oldenburgh  the  same  taritVs  have  been  adopteil,  antl  the  payment 
of  duties  in  one  of  the  States  is  sulficient  to  secure  tree  sale  or 
transit  in  the  other. 

The  Commercial  League  is,  in  fact,  the  substantial  representa- 
tive of  a  sentiment  widely,  if  not  universally,  spread  in  Germany 
—  that  of  national  unity.      It  has  done  wonders  in  breaking  down 


Ila- 
ny 


THE   ZOLLVERKIX. 


131 


]H'tty  nnd  loc:il  prejiidicc's,  and  has  bcccime  a  foundation  on  \vliich 
futinc  kL;'islati()iu  n-picsfntiiiLJ  the  (.■oninion    iiitcivsts  of  tlu-  (Jcr- 
nian    people,    may    undoiihtedlv    l)e    lu'ieaftcr    raised.       If    well 
directed   in    its  t'liture   oj^jeration.  the    ZoU  W-rein  will    represent 
the  fusion  of  (Jernian  interests  in  one  ^reat  alliance.      The  peril 
to  its  heiiellcial  results  will  ^row  out  of  the  etlorts  which  w  ill   he 
made,  and  which   are  alreaily   made,   to  ^ive  by  protections  and 
prohibitions  an  undue  weij^ht  to  the  smaller  and  sinister  interests 
of  the  Verein.      l>ut  if  its  tarilVs  he   so   moderate  and  so  judicious 
as  to  allow   full  j/iay  to  the  interests  of  the  consumers  in  the  held 
of  competition  —  if    there   should    he   no    forcin;^  of   capital    info 
regions    of  un[)roductiveness    or   of    les.;   pioductiveness — if  the 
claims  of  manuf  icturers  to  sacrilices   in  their  t'avor  from  the   com- 
munity at  lar^e  he  rejected  —  if  the  ^reat  ajjjricidtural  interests  of 
(lermanv  recover  that   portion  of  attention  from  the  connncrcial 
union    to   which   thev  are  justlv   entitleil  —  if  the    importance  of 
ibrei;.ni  tiade  and  navij^ation   be  dulv  estimated  —  the  Zoll  \'ereiii 
will  have  the  happiest  inlluence  on   the  j^eneral  prosperitv.      And 
that  the  League   has    been    much   strenj^thened   b\-  the  experience 
of  its  ])eneiits  —  that  its  [popularity  is  exteiulinij^ — that  its  lurther 
spreadiui^  may  be  conlldenth'  anticipated  —  ap|)ears  to  be  indui)i- 
table.      In    fact,   the   Zoll  Verein    has    brouLjht    the    sentiment   of 
(jerman    nationalitv    out    of  the    rej^ions  of  hope    and    fancy  into 
those  of  positive  and    material    interests  ;  and   representinof,  as    it 
does,  the   jjopular  feeliii'^of  (iermany,  it  may  become,  under  cn- 
lil^htened    guidance,    an    instiument    not  onlv    for   promotint;  the 
peace  and  prosperit\'  of  the  States  that  compose  it,  but  of  extend- 
inj^  their  fiiendlv  relations  throuu^h  the  world. 

Considerations  both  of  moralitv  and  economv  were  not  want- 
inij  to  reconunend  the  Conunercial  Union  to  tlie  (jerman  people. 
Not  only  were  the  numerous  barriers  and  various  legislation  of 
the  (jern)an  States  threat  impediments  to  trade,  but  they  created 
a  consideral)le  amount  of  contraband  tratlic.  and  caused  the  coun- 
trv  to  swarm  with  pettv  sinu^i^lers,  who  lived  u})on  the  profits 
which  the  varieties  of  the  tariiVs  placed  within  their  reach.  The 
custom-house  administration  was  costly,  and  generally  inelliclent, 
from  the  extent  of  frontier  to  be  fjuarded  ;  so  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  one  larije  instead  of  a  variety  of  small  circles  has  led 
at  the  same  time  to  a  j^reat  diminution  of  cost  and  a  tireat  increase 
of  efliciency,  while  it  has  removed  from  all  the  interior  of 
Germany   that    demoralizing     influence    which    the    presence    of 


I 


'\ 


\ 


!l|   ill! 


■  -;   i 


Sit 


\u 


13; 


si;i.r.cri()\s. 


i 


u 


,1     ''.' 


iMulliludc's  of   illicit    tiiiilcrs    ;iiiil   siiiiil:>'K'Is    ;il\v;i\>i    hiiiiirs    with 
it. 

Tlu'  Ziill  Wiiiii  \\;i>-iii)t.  ;is  it  has  hcvn  ot'tiMi  as-^i'itrd  to  br,  a 
tmioii  toinu'il  ill  linstilitv  to  tlio  coiunu'rcial  ir.lrirsts  ofotluM' 
vStalcs  —  it  \va<  not  iiitt.-ni!f(l  picmatiiit'h  to  tiwitc  a  niamifacliir- 
in<^  ])o|)iilalioii  in  ri\alr\  witli  or  opposition  to  the  inanulactmint; 
aplitmlo  of  ( iiL-at  Ilritain  —  it  was  l)v  no  inrans  the  jiurposc  oi'  its 
loiindi.  ^^  to  nii'Mliit.-ct  capital  to  nnpiolitahlr  cniplox  nicnt ,  to  sacri- 
licc  a_:4riiiiltni  L'  to  tradi'.  or  to  (.auourai;*.'  less  the  lli'ld  than  the  tac- 
loi  V.  Tiie  Zoll  Wiein  \\  a>  the  snhstantial  i'\|)H.'ssion  and  elleel  ol' 
a  <4eneial  ili.siie  anioiiLT  ;i  i^reat  nation,  split  into  nian\  small  States, 
but  still  of  common  oriujin,  similar  nianners,  speaking-  the  same 
ian^uam-.  educated  in  the  same  spirit,  to  comnuniicite.  to  trade,  to 
tra\el,  without  the  anno\ance  and  impi'dinieiits  which  the  sepa- 
rate fiscal  rt'^ulatioii-  ofcverv  one  of  their  L;ovenmients  threw  in 
the  wa\.  ll',  in  the  natural  process  ol'  tliiui^s,  the  taiills  ol"  the 
/oil  X'erein  have  become  hostile  to  the  imporlation  of  ibreinn, 
and  especiallv  of  l>iiti-h.  pioduce,  it  is  because  (>/fr  laws  have 
prevented  the  i^ieater  extension  of  commer*. ial  relations  with  ( >er- 
inanv.  We  have  rejected  the  payments  thev  have  ollered  —  we 
jiave  forced  thiin  to  maiuificture  what  thev  vvt'ie  unabk"  to  buv  — 
and  we  have  jnit  in  their  hands  the  means  of  manufactui  iiiij 
cheaply,  by  refusin;^  to  take  thi'  surplus  of  their  a^jriculturai  pro- 
duce, the  non-exportation  of  which  has  kept  their  m-arkets  so   low 


that 


small   waLijes  have  been  sutucicnt  to  i^ivc  _u;reat  comlorts  to 


their  laborers. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  hostile  tariiVs  of  other  nations, 
and  especiallv  the  corn  and  timber  laws  of  (Jreat  Ihitain,  served 
<jreatly  to  streiv^then  the  artj^uinents  in  iavor  of  Connnercial 
Union.  It  was  felt  necessary  to  extend  the  home  market  while 
foreign  markets  were  closed,  or  onlv  j^artially  and  irregularly 
o[)ened,  to  the  leading  articles  of  (icrman  production. 

'»  We  should   not   have  complained,"  says  a  distinguished  Ger- 

that  all  our  markets  were  ovei'Howing 
with  English  manulactures  —  that  Germanv  received  in  British 
cotton  goods  alone  more  than  the  hundred  millions  of  l>ritish  sub- 
jects in  the  East  Indies  —  had  not  England,  while  she  was  iium- 
(lating  us  with  //rr  productions,  insistetl  on  closing  her  markets 
to  oitrs.  Mr.  Robinson's  Resolutions  in  1S15  had,  in  fact,  ex- 
cluded our  corn  from  the  ports  of  Great  Britain;  she  told  us  we 
were  to  buy,  but  not  to  sell.     We  were  not  willing  to  adopt  re- 


man writer,    in    iS 


•>."^' 


IS, 
Ml 

al 
ilo 
■ly 

r- 

sh 
)- 
Il- 
ls 
\- 

vc 
c- 


Tlir.   /(M.IAKRKIX. 


133 


])iisals  ;  \vc  \:iiiil\  liopi'd  tlial  a  sc'iisc  of  luT  own  intcri'sf  would 
lead  (o  ii'iipioi.  il\ .  lint  w c-  wcio  (Iisa|)i)ointt'(I,  and  \vc  wcii- 
coniprlird  to  take  I'ari'  of  ouisi'Incs  '" 

Tliiis,  whili'  oil  tlu-  one  hand,  tlir  /oil  W'li'in  was  adxooatc'd 
as  a  nu-asnit-  of  st'll-drfcni'i.'  against  tlu-  lio>tiU'  K-;^islalion  of 
fori'i>4n  nations,  it  slioidd  not  hi-  foi^otk-n  that,  as  icspnts  tlu- 
lonfcdoratfd  Slates,  it  represented  the  principles  of  uniesti  ieted 
intereomnuniication. 

As  hftw  I'l'n  nioii'  that  twent\-si\  millions  oj'  (ieiinans,  it  was 
the  estahlishnuT.t  of  free  triulc ;  lestrielions,  dnties.  |)rohil>ili()ns, 
enstoni-honses.  thei'e  are  none,  as  far  as  i"ei_;ards  thevarions  States 
that  c()m|iiise  the  Commercial  Union.  W'hatevei'  impediments 
the  tarills  create  to  commercial  commnnication  with  fori'iL;ii  lands, 
the  Leai.'i:e  has  thrown  down  e\t.'r\'  hairier  which  stood  in  the 
way  of  trading-  intercourse  hetween  tlu'  dillerent  'oranclu's  of  the 
L^ieat  (lerman  family,  which  the  Leaj^ne  ri'piesenls.  And,  as  the 
conception  of  the  Lea^ne  was  popniar  and  national,  so  il  cami'it 
be  denied  that  its  workini;s  ha\e  heen.  on  t lie  icf/a/c,  favorahic 
to  the  |)rosperitv  and  to  the  happiness  ot'  the  (ierman  commnnilv. 
'I'arill's  less  hostile  to  the  mannfactmes  and  torei;^!!  commerce  of 
nations  wonld.  as  I  conceive,  have  t;reatl\'  added  to  the  hemilcial 
elVects  of  the  I  iiioii.  Its  more  extended  commnnicatioiis  with 
other  conntiies  wonld  iiave  !_;iven  j^reater  enern\',  and  opeiie  1  a 
wider  held  to  the  increased  acli\itv  of  the  home  trade.  There 
is  no  reason  whv  foreign  commerce  shonld  not  have  heen  heiie- 
I'ltted  to  the  same  or  e\en  a  wider  exti-nt  than  internal  industry, 
by  the  oveithrow  of  that  local  lej^islation  which  impedi-d  inter- 
conrse,  and  h\  the  introdnction  of  a  uniform  and  liberal  system 
of  custcnii-honse  leLjislation. 

The  Zoll  W'rein  now  represents  the  interests  (well  or  ill  under- 
stood) of  more  than  twentv-six  millions  of  inhabitants  of  the 
most  civilized  and  o]ndent  ])arts  of  luirope.  and  has  accomplisju'd 
one  important  result,  nameU',  of  exciting  the  attention  ami  of 
awakening;-  the   apprehensions  of  more  than  one    nei^hborin;^"  na- 

\'erein   is  to  become  mav  depend  as   much 


tion.      What  the  Z( 


upon  others  as  upo'i  themselves  ;  and,  should  its  course  be  n'liided 
by  enlightened   economv  and    sound  commercial    policy,    it    may 


d  1 


become  an  instrmnent  of  incalculable  and  Douiulless  j^ooc 

Lonj^  before  the   Zoll  Verein   came   into   operation,  the    same 
spiiit  which    led  to   its  formation   bad  been    exhibited   in    various 

•  Kiinkc's  "  llistorisL-h-politische  Zcitschrift." 


M. 


>34 


SKLKCTIONS. 


j):iits    of  (ii  rm;iii\ .    Iijiliii^'    lo    .simdiv    IoimI    niiil    i'\rii    natloiKil 
reforms  ill  the  comtiR-rcial  |)ulii.-s  dI"  tlii'  ( ii'im.iii  St.iti's. 

Sdiui' steps  li;i(l  tifi'ii  taUiMi  ill  1*1  iissia.  (liiriii;^  tliL- years  iSiT) 
iJiid  i''"^!/,  I>v  suiuliN'  oidiiiaiioes  to  iiitrixliiee  "it  ^ciUMal  and 
simple  system  ol' eustom-lioiise  legislation.'  and  on  llie  Jfitli  May, 
iSivS.  a  new  tarilV  was  published,  whieh  is,  in  lael.  the  ^lonnd- 
le  existinL,'  anaiiLTenu'iils.     IJeloie  this  period  a  dilleii'nl 


work  ot'  tl 


fiscal  system  prevailed  in  dilleient  ])arts  ot'  tiie  Triissian  UinL;dom. 
'J'he  imposts  in  Urandenhnri^'  amoimted  to   Oy  "^nosclien  —  ^s.    Id. 


per 


llldlNK 


lual 


m 


ilesia  thcv  were  onlv  22   mioseheii  —  Js. 


The  new    law  allowed   the    nnrestrieted  elrcnlalion    ot"  all  foreign 


)n)duets  whieh  had   once  passed  the  iVonlier.  and  tlu'   tret'  tiaiisit 


of  all  home  prodnetions.      The  intention  oi"  this  taritVof  iSiS  was 
to  estahlish    10    per    cent,  as   tiie    maximum  ot"  proti'etion  ;   and, 


lied  into  ellect.  th.ere 


had  the  intention   of  the    Prussians  been    eai 
■would  have  been  no  jl^iouiuIs  t"or  eom[)laint. 

In  speakiiiLj  of  tlie  I'russian  taritl"  to  the  Ilow-e  ol'  Commons, 
on  the  ytli  Ma\ ,  iS^y.  Mr.  IlusUisson  stated  ••  that  the  duties  on 
the  internal  eousiimptioii  of  l>i  itisli  ooods  are  what  w  e  should  eoii- 
sider  very   low   upon   most    articles,  tluetuatinj^   i'roiii    ^    to    10  per 


cent.  —  U))on   no  one  article, 


1  1 


)eheve.  exceeihiiL;'  IS  percent 


but  this  was  undoiihledly  an  iiKMirect  view  of  things,  for  it  will 
appear,  on  the  iii\  estiL;ation  of  the  matter,  that  the  duties  on 
many  articles  of  Hritish  manufacture  varv  from  20  to  100  per 
cent,  upon  the  \alue  ;  and  thout^h  no  douhl  the  diitv  (hein^'  levied 
11  the  wei^^lit)  has  much  increased   in   aif  zui/crrw  amount  since 


C) 


it  was,  even  then,    from    20  to  60  ]v:r  cent,  on  \aii()us  lo 


w 


18. 

j)riced  maiuitactures  ;  nor  was  Mr.  Iluskissoii  warranted  in  sayiiii;' 
that  the  low-priced  manufactures;  nor  was  Mr.  I  luskisson  war- 
ranted in  saying'  that,  "  in  the  whole  Prussian  tarill,  there  is  not 
a  si!iu;le  prohibition."  inasmuch  as  imports  of  s.ilt  and  plaving- 
cards  are  wholly  jirohibited,  except  for  go\eriimeiit  accomil. 

The  most  important  step  bv  which  evidence  was  j^iveii  of  the 
tendency  of  the  diirerent  Slates  of  (Jermain'  to  amalpamate  their 
interests  and  to  establish,  instead  of  manv  taritVs.  one  single 
system,  was  the  union  of  Pavaria,  WiirtembertC,  I  loUenzollern- 
Siji'mariuL^en,  and  IIollen/.ollern-IIechin<4en.  in  the  commercial 
Icai^iie  of  iSth  July,  iSj.|..  Uaden,  the  two  Ilesses,  ami  Saxony 
were  afterwards  invited  to  join  the  Lea<4ue.      The  government  of 


•  Sec  especially  the  onlinince  of  iitli  June,  iSi6 —  "  Ziir  Ant'liclniii^  ilur  Wasser.Binneii 


uiul  Proviiizial/ollL' zuiiachst  in  ilea  alien  I'rovinzen  Jcr  M 


onaiclue. 


rilK    /(>1  lAI'.RKIN. 


>35 


Piiissi:!.  alive  to  the  slate  ol'  puMie  opinion,  had  eiilered  liy 
xarioiis  tieal'u-s,  {vt>\u  iNkj  to  iS^o,  into  a  eoiiniiereial  K-ai^iii- 
witli  (iiaiid  Diical  Ilivs^e.  IJppi-  Detincid,  and  some  smaller 
>tates,  and  in  DecemlKT.  iS.M).  the  r//r/tn't'S  (s\\\:U  portions  of  the 
teirilorv  as  are  sm  lonnded  l>\  anoihrr  State)  oi"  MeekK'nlun'^- 
Sehwerin,  K Ipen-l  lesseland.  SehcrnluTi;',  Anhah-Kot'ien, 
Anhall-Dessan.  1  Ies>e-I  lomlmr^".  and  other  States,  joini'd  the 
l'rnsMi-1  li'ssian  I  nion  ;  whiK'.  in  iS^i,  Sasonw  I'lleetoial 
I  lessi",  Sa\e  W'l'imar.  Sa\e  MeininL;en,  Sa\e  Cohni';^;,  Sa\i' 
Altenhnr^-.  and  other  nnilrd  ihi'ms*.  Ivi's  to  the  Uax  aro-Wnrlem- 
lieri;'  leai^ne.  I'.aeh  ot'  these  two  L;reat  hranehes  natmallv  son^^hl 
to  extend  it-  intlnenei',  ami  I'aeh  prepared  the  way  lor  a  tiision  of 
the  whole  in  one  '^leal  as>oeiation. 

On  the  2^(1  Mareh,  iS^;^,  a  treaty  was  conelnded  lielween 
Prnssia.  Uavaria.  W'nrtemherj;'.  I'Jeetoral  and  Dueal  Hesse;  on 
the  3olh  Mareh  ol'  the  same  \(.'ar.  Saxony  joined  the  assoeialion  ; 
on  the  I  ith  ol'  Mav,  .\nhalt  and  Dueal  Saxonv  nniti'd  themsrh  I's. 


he    ratilieations    were    (.'xehan^ed    on    the 


nil   of  Mav 


his 


•ni' 


treat\   is    the  hasis   of  the  /oil   W'rein,  or  Commercial    I. 
It    will    he   foniul   at  length    in   the   Appendix    I.    (  I'arl.  Doe.    p. 
S)  ;    In  !S^^  Baden   united   itself  to   the  League,  and   Xa>saii 


/.•>    / 


anil    Fraidifort-on-the-Maine  ha\e  also  heeome  partie; 


The  first  I'rnsso-I  lessian  I'nion,  takiiiLf  the  name  of  t 


ir 


/■(WfS- 


SfSi 


//-// 


(SS/SC//Cfl 


h. 


/.ull      I  'crbainh 


eompn^mti'     man\      smaller 


Slates,  such  as  Anhalt  Dessau.  ^Vnhalt  Nenhi'r^.  Saxt-  C'oluirii^ 
(jolha,  Anhalt  Kothen,  Schwart/huri;-  Sondenhans.n,  llessf 
Ilonihnr;^,  Sehwart/hnr^  Kudolstadt,  etc.,  represented,  aeeord- 
iny;  to  the  census  of  i8_y,  a    population   of  i  ^.t^^O.oSjr   souls,  and 


)ntained  a  territory  of  s.27<'^  siiuaie  (lerman   mih 


in  iSr;  it 


had,  by  the  union  of  I-^leeunal  H 


esse 


and  the  inex 


>t 


p,.| 


■).•» 
inla- 


tion,  aut^mented  the  number  of  souls  to  i.|,S_'~. )  i  .S.  and  the 
territory  to  5,460  sipiare  (Jerman  miles.  The  States  of  Thr.i- 
inj^ia,  containintj  about  yoo.cxjo  inhabitants,  had  aUo  thi'ir 
eommercial  ami  toll  union  before  the\'  ioined  the  Prussian 
Leaijue  in  1S33,  while  Havaria,  \\  urtemljei;;".  !~ia\ony.  and 
liaden,  brouj^ht  between  8  and  9  millionsof  popula.tion.  and  nearly 
2,500  square  German  miles  of  territory  into  the  eonfederalion. 

The  Ibllowintj  table  exhibits  the  population  ot  the  Stales  now 
comprising;  the  (Jernuni  Custom-house  I'nion,  to  serye  as  a  basis 
for  the  Diyisioii  of  the  Receij)ts  at  Triennial  Periotls. 


Ll  He 

'ii"'"" 


r 


I' 


.  1) 

-a 


*  '   K 

>  id 

II 

t  id 

1.^^' 


si:i,i;<  I  in\s. 


I A 


I 


c 


I>rslirriMlii)ii  nf  the 
Stiili  s  will  1  Ikivc 
^iiviM  lliiir  .Mill  In 
tlii'ir  own  iiiiiiiL', 


Pni-'-iii, 

wliii-li 

lur     . 
Itav;iii:i 

Siixiiiiy 
Will  hiii 
Or. 111(1  I) 

KIlCllilM 

(iiiiiul  I) 
'riiurliii; 
Duiliy  I) 


J  11(1   till'  St.ltl'H 
||;IM'    ('(UIK'    I"! 

'K  UK  lit     \\  nil 


"■"  « 

ucliyiil  I'.ihU-ii. 
Ic  (.1  Mom;  . 
IK  liy  (il  lli'shu. 
iaii  Stak's  .  . 
f  Nassau     .    . 


I'laiiMirli 


I'ixlctlt      (l( 

tiriiloiial 
HiirpiTti-  I 
I'it'H  in  I 
sijiiarc  I 
mill's,        I 


"  1  (KP, 

JTl    'l"    ' 
'     I  11(1 
^Si;    I  .-. 
•'   •    I  II  II 
^Td   .'i   I 

'     I  mil 

iSj   I  V  I 

I  11(1 

'  ■  I  IMP 

iHl,     tit 

■    I  (PIP 

Sj  TIP 
I  (P(P 


:i  :i 
1 1  IP  11 , 


^<^-,-{\i 


i:vi. 

III      nl'I 

till' 

(  'lls.i 

Imii 

IhiIIsI' 

Ipiiilii'i  ill! 

mill 

Sf 

l'il|llllali<lll  ari-nlllilli; 
lip  the  I  riisiis  ay  Hill 
iiji'iii  nil  the  {isl  III' 
Di'Liaiiln'r,    ill 


'S.U. 


i\i7- 


77,    flO 

'  I  IPIP 

1^1     ■'" 

•       I  II  II 


5^       ; 
,  I II 

■'  I   nil 

I  nil 
III  4  11 
1  nil. 


.(,J5i,iis 

i..;ii;,'K'S 

i,'>j7,i.'j 

>  i-'.l7i''57 
rnii,ri74 

7'v.(«ji 

<,;(iS,.t7S 


I  |,,<is.j5i) 

.|..il(;.NS7 

I, '15 J, 1 1  ( 

I, m  17,1 /"I 
l,J"|."l  t 

'>.;j.7'>i 
7VI.7.I" 
V.V'M" 
,^,l.7.V' 


OIlslTVIl. 
lidtlS. 


J5,(i;ii,Si>S 
(XljUlO 


ImaHJO 


Tiital    f<ir 
Hivi'ii. 


1  'I 

I.C'll  11" 


.'5.i5(),SyS      jii,i).|j,_5,},<     i  Total    fiir 
I  ""'      I  l'i(|iiilatliiii. 


'  N'mii. — 'I'Ik'  iinpiilali'iii  (il  I'laiiUCini  is  imt  liKiii  into  Uic  ni\  i'-ion  of  tin'  Hi'Vtiiius, 
ns  this  ton  n  II 11  i\  IS  an  iiialiciiahli.' aiul  iii\  ai  iaIiU'  sum  L.ilciiLiti  il  oii  llic  hasis  <>(  u  |)niui- 
lalioii  ol  Oil, I  soiil>  (in,i_i^(i). 


TIk-  /i'//  I  'crchi  had  to  contend  witli  a  stroiit;  opposition  in 
its  ori;;in.  not  only  iVoiii  sonic  ol  tiic  Slati's  whose  local  |iosition 
forced  them  into  tlie  union,  hut  iVoin  olhei"  ( ierman  States  that 
continued  independent,  for  the  laritV  pressed  e(|nally  on  all,  not 
parlies  to  the  League,  whether  neii^hhors  or  iorein'iieis.  The 
Prussian  t, trills  ol"  iSiS  had  heen  stronvily  resisted  In  i'dectoral 
llesse,  C'as-el  and  other  States.  Sa\on\'  denounced  them  as 
hostile,  na\ .  fatal  to  lier  manufacturing^  and  connnercial  interests. 
"\'et  it  cannot  he  denied  that  the  tarills  of  1818  were  a  j^reat  im- 
pro\ement  upon  the  ])revioiislv  cxislin;^-  legislation,  for  they 
replaced  multitudes  of  prohihitions  and  prohihitory  duties  hy 
moderate  im])orls.  Tn  i8j6  the  (piestion  of  a  union  hi'tween 
Prussia,  and  Hesse  Darmstadt  was  discussed,  and  an  iiUjtiiry  was 
made,  in  case  Ilesse  Darnistailt  should  unite  with  IJaxaria  and 
Wurteml)er<.^,  whetlier  Prussia  wouUl  l)e  willin<y  to  entertain  tlie 
suhject  of  a  connnercial  treaty.  'J'he  Ihst  answer  (jf  Prussia  was 
uufavorahk'.  hut  tlie  dilHculties  were  at  last  surmounted,  and  the 
Leamje  hefore  referred  to  was  formed  hetwecn  Prussia  and  Ilesse 
Darmstadt,  of  which  the  Prussian  taritl"  uf  181S  was  the  basis, 


'  II 


TiiK  z()I,[,vi:fu:in. 


ru 


the  ciisloin-honscs  ht'twi'iMi  tlu-  two  cfxintrii-s  bcin-^  wlmllv  ri'- 
inovrd — iMi'li  Sl;ilt'.  Ii(i\si.'\  ff.  rf>iL'i  \  I'll  the  ri;;ht  to  c.st;il>li.sli 
(liitits  of  tdiisiimplioti  on  similry  ;iitifli>  ot' food  aiul  drink;  ;itid 
1*1  ii>si;i  s\  ;is  ;iIlo\\  L(l  to  maintain  the  niono|)ol\  ol'sah  and  phivin'^- 
canis. 

'I'hi'  oliji'cts  proposed  l>y  the  Zoi!  W'leiii  were  the  renio\al  of 
all  lestiietions  to  conimniiieation  and  tiaiisit.  the  al)olition  ol'  all 
internal  en»toin-honses,  tlu-  estalilihhnii'nt  of  a  eonnnon  taiill"  and 
system  ot'  eolleetion,  and  the  repartition  ot'  the  fi'ceipts  mi  all 
imports  and  exports  aeeordin^C  to  the  pupnhition  anion.;'  all  the 
niemheis  ol'  the  IaM'^ih'.  The  Slates  rt'sriAi'd  lo  theni.sel\t>  the 
rij^hl  ol*  intKuhicin'^'  any  loeal  anannemenls  \\  hieli  did  not  inter- 
fere with  the  '^I'lieral  jirineipK's  —  ol"  noniinatiiiLf  the  t'nneliunaries 
of  their  own  distiiets,  and  of  examining  the  accoimtane\'  of  any 
part  of  the  lAa'4ue.  The  League  is  lionnd  not  to  interfere  with 
matters  of  local  revenue,  such  as  port-diu's,  tnrnpiki's,  tolls,  etc. 
Tlie  I'riissian  tarilV  of  iSiS  was  lecoi^ni/.ed  as  i'stal)Ii->hin'_;'  the 
maximnm  ofdnties.  It  was  deterniined  that  a  common  s\stem  of 
moiiexs,  weights,  and  measnres,  should  replace,  a^  soon  as  possi- 
ble, the  \arioiis.  complicated,  and  discoi'dant  iisa^s  of  the  dider- 
cnt  .States  of  the  union,  and  that  the  whole  iiilliience  of  the 
union  should  lie  directed  towards  the  exti  !i-ioii  of  its  comnicic  ial 
relations  with  other  States.  The  inteiiti'i  ot'  the  tarill'  is  to 
admit  raw  materials  without  any,  or  on  ii,  \x\v  a  ni.niin.il.  diitv. 
The  lij^htest  (hil\  Ie\  ied  is  or.  silk  L;oods,  amoimtiiii;-  to  IK;  dol- 
lars per  cw  t.,  or  ahout  3  shilliu^ys  sterling-  i)er  11).'  'J'he  common 
rate  of  dut\-  is  half  a  dollar,  or  is.  6(1.  per  cwt.  on  all  articles 
not  speciallv  excepted.  'l"he  tarill',  as  fixed  1)\'  the  C'oni^ress  w  liich 
has  just  closed  its  lahoi's,  will  he  f)imd  in  the  Ap[)endix  II. 
(Pari.  Doc,  p.  76). 

It  would  ill  hecome  me.  in  this  report,  to  discuss — thoiinh  I 
cannot  pass  o\er  in  absolute  silence  —  the  ])idbable  political  con- 
se(|uences  of  the  establishment  of  the  ZoU  \^erein.  They  cer- 
taiiilv  were  not  lost  sitrlit  of  bv  its  founders.  The  intimate 
connection  between  commercial  and  political  interests  is  obvious; 
and  the  adxocates  of  the  League  did  not  fail  to  perceixe  that  no 
political  alliance  would  be  so  stroiiL^  as  that  based  upon  a  coin- 
nlunit^•  of  iiecuniary  and  social  interests.  The  jarrinj^  of  ditl'er- 
cntly  constituted  institutions,  the  local  jealousies  which  still  e.xert 


'  Ttie  duty  levied  by  llic  linglish  tiirill'  011  silk  goods  is  from  iis.  to  i-;>,  dd.  per  lb. 


I 


' 


'"II  '^M 


Ki 


Ut 


if 


■  V 


m^ 


I'm 


1 ' 


■«■■ 


ns 


si:i.i;c  iioNs. 


tlu-ii    intliu'iurs.  llic  i.  I.isliiiiL;   <>l    pciMninl  ;iiiil    priv  ili'!.;i'il  inli'ii'sts 


Willi    llu 


IMlhlU- 


\S  I' 


l);i\i'  pi  i'\  fiiti-il.  Id    ;i    (.ill, nil    lAlciit,    llu- 


liisiiui  wliiili  would  olIu'iwiM'  Ikiw  l;iUrii  pl.irr,  si  >  tli;il  tlu- 
jiolilicil  .111(1  till'  romiin'ii  i;il  |)iplii.\  aii"  imt  :iiw,i\s  idrnliru'tl; 
lull   il  »  .iMiK't  Ih'  iliMiiod  tli;it  iiiidiM"  ;i  w  im'  dini  tioii  tin-  m.uliimT\ 


>t    tlu 


/. 


ill  \  ruin  wmild    mihoiiu"  ;i  \c\\   ini'.ditx    imliiual  i'iil;iiu' 


w  huh    w  I'liii 


liroii'^lil    to    luMi"    with    '^ir.it     |)o\\rr    ii|)oii    tiu' 


liiluir   itiiuriiis   1 


-f   1 


iiroiu' 


nil 


1  t: 


11'     Will 


r 


u'  m'lU'Kil    t'ri'liii;4    ill   ( !i'i main    tow.iii 


tlu'    /oil  X'lTi-iii    i,' 


ill, It   il  is  llu-  llist    str|)  towards  Si  liat  is  (.-alli'd   tin-    ( n  /■J//<i///:,f//('// 


>l    tlu 


|)fi  11  Ik' 


It    lias  iiiolsi'ii  (low  11   soiiu'ol    the   slroir'cst    Ik 


ol    alu'iialioii 


iiiit 


llostlll|\ 


1»\'    a    i()iiiiiii 


iiiU  rests    oil 


eoiiiiiici \ial   and  tiadiii;^  (|iicst!(ins   il  has   piepaii'd   the  v\av  lor   a 

linjii- 


nohtual    natii  iiialilN 


has  siiiKiiu'd  miu'h 


U'ci  ni<. 


di(.u-,   and    hahit.    and    rcjihui'd    tluaii    l'\    a    wider    and    slioii^er 


tdement    ot    (  ierman    nat  ioiialit\ 
The  /oil  \- 


to  exteina 


erein.  ii\   dneetniL;  eapital   to  internal,  in   preliMi'iui' 
I.  ti.ide.  has  aire, i(l\    had    a  liiiMt  inllneiu'e  iii  iinpioNin:;' 

liii'',    the   tr.iiisport    ol' 


the    1(1. ids.  the    e. in, lis.    the   nu'aiis   o|    tr.i\e 


lelli 


111 


w  old 


111 


' I \  111'. 


liiunuMt  ii  Ills  ol    e\  ei  \    sol  1. 


additional    iinpnlse   to   inland   eoiii- 
lie   isol.iiioii  of  the   stvii.il  (  lianian 


St. lies,  with  sepai.ite  liseal    inteii'sls.  and  olleii  ho-~lile   le^isl.ilion, 
presented    lliose    l.ieilit  ies  I'l  oni   lu-in^-   L;i\eii   to   inlei  eoiii --e  whieh 


aie  alike    the  e\  ideiiee  and   the    means   ol    ei\  ili/,!!  ion. 


(  ) 


n   i'\ei\- 


Ml 


le    lieiieriei,il    eluiiim's    are   takin;4   piaee 


Kill  w  ,i\  s  are 


hem;,;' 

eiuisinuied  in  main  p.nls  ol  the  (Jeiiii.in  Uiiitoiv.  steainhoats 
are  eiowdiii;.;  the  (ierni.in  |)orts  and  eoastin^  almii;  the  (iiMiuan 
shores;  e\  I'lv  tliiii;^  is  ti.msported  with  greater  ehe.ipness  and 
rapiditx . 

r»nt    whaU'Xi'f  opinions  ma\   he   formed   as   to   the   I'lleet    of  (lie 
C'oimiu'iei.il    l.e.iv^ne   npoii  l>rili.sh   intensls,  il    is   imw   too  I.ite   to 


diseiiss  them  lu'iieliei.iln 


The    I  .eaL^ne   exists,  .md 


Is   no 


I    hkelv 


to  he  hidkeii  up  ;    the  se|)arale  iiiU'iists  of  the  dideient    ."^Lites  au' 


nieiKteil 


111 


eommoii    inti'i^-sts   ot    tlu' 


/i 


eii'iii 


topies   ol    eonip.ii  isoii    hetween    tlu-    n'eneial    l.iiill 


and 


taiit]> 


w 


hieh 


pre\  loii'lv     I'Msti 


111    llu'    \aiioiis    indepeiidi  111    .Si.ales   of 


tlu 


union    .lie    now     nano\  e 


w  liate\  ei"    lAisle 


inluieiue     is    meim-d    m    the    eommon    alli.iiue 


il    liuai    llse 
and    the    Lea''i 


le 


iiuist  now  he  a.ei'pk'd  and  treated  w  itli  as  a  hod\    more  inlliienti.il 
than    were    ;in\     ol     its    memheis,  —  eapahie    ol"   eoiilrolliiiL;-    the 


Ull 

•ly 

;its 

ail 

nut 

he 

t.) 

rlv 

.11  (.■ 
lu- 

.1" 

;iu' 

lial 

he 


iiii':  /(>i.i,vi:iu  IN. 


i.^O 


sm.iIUr    iiilluciu'cs   of    its   i.(>m|)iiiuiit     pails    h\     l\\c    (.unrtiili  atrd 
iiilliu'Mii-   (»|    ihi'   wholi'. 

It  is  iialiiial  that  a  hoilv  so  pdwciiul  as  llu-  C'(imim'ii.ial  I.iamiL' 
should  scrk  to  i'\ti'ii(l  its  iiitliiriK  c.  Nhm-  loasls,  iiioir  i)ort,s, 
and  iiion-  slii|)i)inL;'  aii'  liu'  tliiii'  ili-.siJciiita  which  an-  put  lor- 
\\;ii(l  h\  its  advoiati's  and  luriiihiis.  I'm  thr  i  lasts  and  tlu- 
ports  ol  the  IJaitii'  ludoii'^iit'.;  to  llir  union  air  so  iniu  h  i  lampi'd 
and  pirju(hi.'fd  h\  thi'  Souinl  (hirs  that  the\  (.aniiol  iiutt.  in  any 
ol  thi'  L;iral  I'luporiuuis  ol  tiaili'  out  ol  thr  l>ahii',  thr  lonijx'ti- 
tioii  ol  the  ports  and  I'oast  south  ot  ihi-  I'uhii'  ;  whiU'  llic  polls, 
-ui  h  as  llanilniiL;,  Uoltiidain.  ete..  whieh  air  the  natural  oullcls 
of  the  L;iea!  i'i\eis  wliieh  run  tliioii<_;li  the  pioviiuis  ol'  the 
l.i'amie.  all  Ih-Ioiil;  to  States  not  associated  witli  it.  The  suhjiel 
has  heeii  disi  ijssed  of  L^iviii'^  a  lla^  t<>  tln'  /oil  \  eiciu.  as  it  has 
aln'ad\  a  eoiua;4i' ;  hut  to  |)ossiss  a  inariiu',  hoth  wailiUe  and 
eoiuiuei  lial.  in  order  to  eonipete  with  thi'  L^rowin^  sipiadions  ot 
Kus-^ia,  and  to  he  oil  a  le\el  with  the  I  laiisr  i"o\\  ;i--  iind  with 
1  lolland.  is  an  oliji'i i  miu'li  in^istrd  oii,  hut  \\  hii  h  dor-,  not  sfi-in 
to  present  am    iiiuuediate  prospei  Is  of    irali/al  ion. 

( )n  itie  V''''  "'  |id\.  iS;S,  an  arLium-nient  w.is  uiadc  (  .\ppen- 
di\.  III.,  I'.  I ).  p,  i»S  • )  !"•'■  introdiieiuL;  a  unit  \  ol  i  in  ieiie\  .  to  taUe 
elleet  lioiu  the  is?  ol  lanuaiA.  iN|l,  the  unit\  to  eoiisist  ol  the 
inaik,  \\  li^hinu:   -.i.^nioo  .U'''niiues. 

The  inaik  to  he  lepiesenled  h\  i  (  doll. us  ;  the  doll.ir  h\  i '^^ 
t'.  nil's  ;   and  the  tloiin  to  he   }  ot    .i  doll.ir. 

The  aieoinils  to  he  Ui'pt  litlier  in  dollars  (I'lussi.in  eiowiis)  or 
lloiiiis  (;_;uilders) . 

'I\\(>  niillious  ot"  |)ieei's  ot  two  dollars  I'ai  h  are  to  heeoined 
heloii-  the  l-t  ot'  |aniiai\  ,  iS|_'.  The  eoinaLje  has  alread\  heeii 
intiodiieed  :  it  hears  the  elli^ies  ot  the  Kiie^dt  I'lussia,  and  has 
oil  the  reverse  the  iiiseiiptiou  ot  J  , n/z/s  .]/h>/::i\  or  "  .\ssoeia- 
tion's   Moiie\." 

Tlu-  I'litme  inlluenees  and  diieeliou  ot  the  /oil  X'niin  will  he 
determined  not  alone  hv  the  s^i  ow  iu',;  stieie^lh  ol  the  iuti  rests  it 
represents,  hut  In  the  diieeliou  whieli  loieiL^u  nations  tr.idiiiLj 
with  (ierm.ins  ina\  hi'  ahle  or  williii'^  to  L;i\e  to  tluii  own  eom- 
nieieial  legislation;  lor,  how  e\  er  enli^hti'iied  i;i.i\  he  the  i)olie\-, 
and  liowi'ViT  siiK'erc  the  purpose,  oi'  the  st.itesiiu'ii  ot"  (ieiin.iuv 
to  pri'venl  the  Lea;4iie  hi-eoiniii'^  an  instiiiineiil  lor  advaneiii;^  the 
minor  interests  ot"  certain  classes  <»l'  prodiieeis.  as  opposed  to  the 
major  interests  ul"  gieater  [)iodueeis,  aiul  to  the  ^eiieial  ihleiests 


■  HI 


i 


-  H 

hi 


If 


w 


%4 


•if- 


m 


K  -crt 


»l 


'  -i^Hl  'i 


f!i 


i  ! 


140 


SELECTIONS. 


1;' 


of  the  wliolc  bodv  of  coii.siinicrs,  ;ill  experience  shows  that  the 
niiiior  interest,  l)eiii<^  more  vouthtul,  vii^orous,  and  concentrated, 
weij^hs  in  the  balance  for  nuicii  moie  than  its  real  vahie.  'J'he 
aiL^ricultin'al  interest,  for  example,  whicii  in  the  States  of  tiie  union 
is  the  most  ditliised.  the  most  im|)ortant,  and  the  most  productive, 
will  not.  in  the  contest  with  the  risintj  manufactuiint^  interest, 
obtain  its  t'ull  share  of  power,  dependent  as  it  must  naturally  1)l' 
to  a  threat  extent  on  the  ilemands  of  foreii^n  markets.  For  it  is 
to  foreinn  markets  alone  it  can  look  for  the  sale  of  tiiat  surplus 
produce  which  home  demand  does  not  consume,  ami  which,  as 
0111^  as  it  remains  witliout  vent,  must  create  a  {le[)res^ion  in 
the  price  of  the  wliole  ([uantity  produced.  Hitherto  the  oper- 
ation of  the  Zoll  N'erein  has  been  to  streniijthen  the  manufactinin<^ 
interest  at  the  expense  of  the  a'j^ricullural.  As  the  foreign  de- 
niaml  for  a^i"icultural  produce  has  been  uncertain  and  capricious, 
the  low  averat^e  prices  ha\e  operated,  on  the  one  hand,  in  tbrciivj^ 
capital  out  of  ai^ricultural  into  manutacturincf  channels;  while  the 
cheap  ])rice  of  food  has  j^iveu  to  the  (jerman  artisan  i^reat  advan- 
tai^es  in  liis  competition  with  the  labor  of  countries  in  which  the 
price  of  food  is  relatively  higher. 

Were  foreij^n  markets  accessible  to  the  German  a^^riculturist. 
there  is  no  doubt  the  How  of  capital  towards  maiuitactures  would 
be  ehecked.  first  by  the  increased  demand  for  auricultnral  lalior, 
and.  secondly,  by  the  loss  of  the  advantaLje  wliich  the  (jerman 
artisan  now  possesses  in  the  comparative  clieapness  of  food.  I'or 
the  prices  of  the  countries  which  would  be  importeis  of  (Jerman 
corn,  for  example,  would  determine  the  prices  of  corn  in  tiie 
(iirman  markets  for  the  (ierman   consumer.      In  his  own  market 


he  unist  i^Mve  the  same  price  as  tlie  lorei^n   buver  wiio  comes   uito 
that  market. 

One  of  the   "rreat    diillculties    with    which    sound    commercial 


prmci])les  liave  liad  to  conten(b  ni  dermany  as  e 


( 


•Isewl 


lere.  is 


tlu 


too  ueneral  adoption  of  a  phraseoloLjy  which  has  j^rown  out  of  a 
vicious  le-^islation,  and  has  to  a  yreat  extent  popularized  error. 
IIi;4h  duties  on  imported  articles  are  justilied  by  the  plea  that  it 
is  necessary  to  atlbrd  protect/on  to  the  producer^  while  the  sub- 
stantial fact  of  the  conse(|uent  sacrifice  of  the  consumer  is 
wIkjIIv  kept  out  of  view.  For  one  case  in  which  the  Joss  to  the 
many  's  ))nt  Ibrward,  there  are  a  thousand  in  which  the  profits  to 
the  few  are  urged  as  suilicicnt  sanction  to  perverse  legislation. 


iS.v  . 
iSii  . 


THE   ZOI.IA'EREIX. 


141 


Dictorici'  e^ivcs  a  vcm'v  ciirii)iis  triMo  (p.  127).  showiiilX  the 
operation  of  the  Zoll  \'erein,  (hiring  the  years  iS^^3  to  i'^.i5.  on 
impoiled  articles. 

On  foreign  articles  of  consumption  not  coming  into  competi- 
tion with  (jerman  articles  the  inciease  in  the  three  years  is  as  :;.}. 
to  46  ;  in  toreign  articles  of  consumption  competing  with  (Jer- 
man articles  the  decrease  is  as  24  to  2y  ;  in  half-manulactineii  ar- 
ticles serving  for  further  lahor  llie  increase  is  oni\  from  ().i6i  to 
y.S^o;  while  in  wholly  nianufacturetl  articles  llu>  decrease  is 
from    13  to    10. 

The  facilities  created  for  communicafion  by  the  improvement 
of  roads,  canals,  etc.,  have  greatly  aided  the  inland  trade  of  (ier- 
manv.  At  the  close  of  the  hist  war  there  were  no  roads  of  the 
lirst  class  either  in  I'omerania,  I'oscn.  or  Prussia  proper.  In 
iSiT.  the  number  of  (ierman  miles  laid  down  in  Ch.ausc'es  was 
523^1  =  2.408  English;  in  1S2S  it  was  i  .(/)2^  z=  4,SS(j ;  and  in 
1S31,  1.22S?  1=5.610;  ami  this  amount  has  been  greatly  increased 
at  the  present  time. 

Of  the  activity  of  communication,  the  following  ollicial  returns 
of  the  (piantities  of  goods  wiiich  passed  through  Priegnitz  w  ill 
furnish  remarkable  evidence  :  — 


•0 

C   J 

4 
;:'= 

3 

'•J 

^  (.Mrs. 

S   1/ 

c 

JS 

ij 

(/3 

■■J 

"3 

X  c 

u 

'^ 

^ 

s: 

-a 

Civl. 

0 

CTCt. 

Czut. 

'f- 

0 

H 

C7Vl. 

C7lt. 

Crt'/. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

iSjo.    .    . 

■it'M'.W 

f)S.j,02() 

44".557 

4'^,W2 

l.i^.^'.i 

... 

.... 

•.vi..?"4 

1.7'".'/'? 

ISU  .    .     . 

22'),  |li 

5115,0 1(1 

5I(),ikSi 

'(5o7( 

i;'^,!!/! 

40.'^^^ 

.... 

.Vt.aSS 

I,(>2S,ii;) 

I^i-'-  .  • 

2(11,1 -(5 

720, jm; 

5t".-'l" 

5.i  -'"V 

il7."i7 

57-"  .t 

iS.iSy 

i>|.Si)i) 

i>7^.i<W 

I'^.U-   .   . 

2'«i,^'M 

;<'".S^ 

477-''7" 

,<-■,"■ '2 

i,;2,'.ij 

5ii,|»4S 

y.'vi 

S(i,5<)5 

i,7l",H('> 

'XH  •   •   • 

3O7.US7 

y''7.7"4 

75i."JS 

^">51'. 

J21,l...3 

70.72S 

i\,i*y, 

yuo.uj 

,i.225,./>S 

i  ii 


"II I   MK- 

IH|     )l<t 


IS 


It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  (Jreat  Ibitain  had  long  enjoyed 
peculiar  advantages  in  the  facilities  of  coniimmication  ;  and  to 
these  facilities  much  of  the  activit\  and  success  of  her  maimfictur- 
ing  and  commercial  industrv  is  attributable.  For  manv  \eais  iier 
progress  in  this  respect  created  almost  a  monopoly  of  benefit  ;  but 

'  I  have  h;id  occMsion  constantly  ti>  consult  Dictcriii's  "  St;ilisti>clur  I'ehursiclil  ilir  wirli. 
liusten  (ieginslar-.ile  iks  N'erkelirs  uiul  N'erlirauclis  iiii  frciissisclion  St.i^ili;  iiiul  iiii  l)<  iit. 
sclifii  Zollvtrliamli.',  von  iSji  liis  |S,V'.  aiis  anitlicliiMi  t^iifllen  liar^jestellt,''  Iti-iliti,  iSjS, 
'I'lie  valualilc  facts  lie  has  colleeted  will  be  lound  scattered  over  the  whole  oltliis  report. 


i 


142 


SKLECTIOXS. 


the  ;i(l\aiitn2jcs  she  enjoyed  are  now  i^articipatcd  in  by  other  na- 
tions ;  ami  in  ( Jerniain'  especially  threat  advances  havi-  been  made, 
and  continue  to  l)e  made,  in  all  those  improvements  which 
facilitate   interconrse. 

It  is  obvious  that  I'^UL^land  cannot  lont^  maintain  exclusive  pos- 
session of  advantages  which  civilized  man  is  every  wiiere  success- 
fullv  strn,t,';^lini^  to  obtain.  Railroads  are  now  beiuL!^  introduced 
between  the  principal  towns  in  the  Zoli  \'erein.  —  those  between 
Dresden  and  Leip/itJ  and  between  Berlin  and  I'otsiiam  are  com- 
pleted, many  others   are  bej^un,  and   a  still    greater   number  are 


jjrojected  ;  and  m  these  enterprises  tlie  undertakers   iiave 


th 


dl   tl 


le 


advaniages  of  our  experience.  The  mnnber  of  ca:>als  has  con- 
siderably increased  ;  steamers  are  gi\  ing  great  development  to 
river  navigation  ;  and  even  in  those  branches  of  industry  in  which 
our  sii|)erioritv  is  the  most  marked,  such  as  the  mainifacture  of 
machinery,  competition  is  marching  after  us  with  rapid  strides. 

l?ut,  independently  of  the  progress  of  (iermany  towards  a 
participation  in  the  advantages  which  for  a  series  of  years  have 
been  almost  exclusively  possessed  hy  (jreat  Britain,  she  has  apti- 
tudes and  facilities  of  her  own  which  must  greallv  aid  hei"  in  the 
development  of  her  industrv.  The  iVugal  and  economical  habits 
of  the  German  people  enable  them  to  i>rocure   a   tar  ureater   pro- 


peoi 


portion  of  comforts  for  the  same  jiroportional  rate  of  wages  than 
are  generallv  obtained  bv  the  I"2nglish  lalujier  ;  added  to  which  a 
simpler  mode  of  life,  a  smaller  consumption  of  animal  food,  and 
a  less  costly  class  ot  garments,  leave  out  of  their  smaller  earnings 
a  larger  amount  of  savings.  Their  savings  are,  tor  the  most  part, 
invested  in  the  purchase  of  the  house  in  which  tliev  tlwell,  and 
the  gartleii  which  they  cultivate,  —  whose  cultivation  is  alike  a 
source  f)f  health,  enjoyment,  and  prolit,  being  in  most  cases 
a  valuable  auxiliary  to  manufacturing  industry.  Nor  ought  the 
general,  the  almost  universal  education  of  the  population,  be  for- 
gotten as  immensely  contributory  to  the  public  prosperity.  ICle- 
mentary  instruction  is  provided  for  all,  and  s]>ecial  instruction  tor 
those  who,  in  any  department  of  art  or  imUistry,  exhiliit  any  par- 
ticular aptitude.  I  have  given  in  the  Appendix  (IV.,  IM).  pp. 
96-7),  a  short  accoimt  of  the  (jewerbe-Schule  at  Berlin,  which 
imder  the  adiniiable  superintendence  of  M.  Banth  (whose  services 
to  his  country  are  beyond  all  estimate,  and  above  all  praise),  has 
first  gathered  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom  the  youths  best  fitted 
for  scientific  training;  and,  after  a  thorough  course  of  education, 


ii;4>- 


:uul 


ISL'S 


tl 


IL' 


lor- 


tor 
hai- 

pp. 

lich 
liccs 

has 

ttLHl 


TIIF-:    ZDT.I.VKRKIN'. 


143 


lias  a,t,''aiM  dispersed  them  dver  the  coiintrv.  The  i^MMdiial  dill'ii- 
sion  of  a  UnowledLa'  and  a  taste  tor  ar*^^  oNcrthe  u  hole  field  of 
(icniiaii  indiistrv.  its  hapi)\'  iniliieiice  upon  all  maiintaetines, 
exhibited   in   a   thciisand   evi.ieiiees    of  improvement,  are  ol)\  ions 

and   experii  lice,  more   and    more 

lolli^ 


to  ever\  olisi'iA  t  r 


NL 


IMUal    SKIi 


nitmiateh  assoeiated    with  scieiitdie    nistruction.  ha\e   heen 
preparing-    the    most    important    results;     and    when    the     risiuLj 
•generation  ot"  inlellii;ent  artisans  l)rin<^  their  inturmation   and  taste 


m 


to  tl 


le   wide   region  ot  manufacturing'  and  commercial  competi- 
tion, there  can   he'   no  doubt  of  tlu'ir  contril>ulin<>'    laiLreh'   to  the 


'eneral  wealth  an 


1 1  weal 


'I'he  tarit!"  of  the  Zoll  N'erein  has  no  other  jirohihitions  than 
tiiose  of  salt  and  pla\  inj^-cards.  which  are  mono|)olies  in  Piussia  ; 
and  the  princi[)le  of  the  tariil"is  to  admit  raw  material,  and  mate- 
rials serving'  the  ends  of  aLiricnlture  and  manufactures,  eitlier  on 
verv  low.  or  without  anv,  duties.     Thus,  raw  cotton,  wool,  coals. 


P'k^- 


iron.  ores,  raw    hides. 


an( 


1  sl< 


nis. 


haie   auil    ra 


l.l.it 


skins,  pot- 


ashes,   common    j)otter\',    turpentine,    common    furniture,    ehall 
rai^s,    raw    rtfuse    of    sundry    manutactures,    trees   for    plantin* 


manurL",    eaitiis, 


hsii, 


"jrass    an( 


ha\ 


trarden    produce 


birds. 


blacklead.,  -^vorn  clothes,  precious  metals,  wood,  luri",  iVesh  fruit, 
milk,  seeils.  etc..  pa\   no  duties  at  all. 

Tlie  objections  to  the  tarill"  of  the  Zoll  \'ereiii  are  twofold; 
tliev  refer  to  the  amount  of  duties  le\  ied,  and  to  the  manner  in 
which  tliey  are  le\  ied. 

The  duties  are  far  hiL,dier  than   th.e   Prussian   ^•overmnent   pro- 


\ssed    Its   intention    to    le\v. 


Tl 


lev    were    intended    to   rei)resent 


the   tarilfs  o 


f    1 


>,. 


russia. 


X^ 


)W,    in   the   communication   of 


Jiaron 
l>ef  )re 


Malt/ahn   to   Mr.  CaiiniiiL;-,  dated    Dec.  J^.  iSj^,  and   laid 
Parliament.  b\'  order  ot   ller  Maie--t\'.  in  answer  to  the  address  of 
the  House  ot'  Commons  of   1st  )iil\.   iSii).  the  \S()rds  of  the  I'rus- 


sian  minister  .oe  as 


foil 


oWs 


X. 


o  one  ot  the  tluties  on  imports  is  sutiicientU  hi'j^ii  to  prevent 


111 


th 


e  importation  ot   toiei^n   ptixhict^ 


Is     is 


|)i( 


ed 


b\  their  exten- 


sive sale  in  all  parts  of  the  moiiarihy.  The  duties  K'\  ied  oil  the 
l)roducts  of  torei;4n  fibrics  or  maiuifactnres  are  L,^eiierall\  oiilv  10 
per  cent,  on  their  value  ;  on  some  they  amount  to  15  |)er  cent., 
but  there  are  many  which  are  more  moderate." 

IJut  these  representations  are  certainly  not  borne  out  bv  facts; 
for,  not  onlv  do  the  duties  levied  on  manufactures  vary  tVom  zo 
to   80  per  cent,  (instead  of  from    10  to   13   per  cent.),  but  there 


i 


1^  lli< 
■  llJt 


Wr- 


144 


SELECTIONS. 


I  ■:.  I  J 


arc  f^rcat  varilics  of  tjoods  wliicli  arc  wholly  excluded  from  tlic 
Prussian  marUcts  in  con.sc(iiiciicc  of  the  elevation  of  the  tarilV, 

The  manner  in  which  the  duties  are  levied  is  such  as  to  press 
most  se\ei"ely,  with  reference  to  their  cost,  on  coarse,  inferior  and 
lieavv  articles ;  those  least  able  to  bear  a  hi<;'h  rale  of  duty  nrc 
most  imposed,  tiie  same  amount  of  ilut\  hein;^  taken  on  all  species 
of  jjfoods  made  of  the  same  raw  material  —  the  ilnest  (lualilies 
pav  the  least,  and  the  lowest  ([ualities  the  highest  amount.  Tiie 
a(/  valorcDi  princi|de,  which  is  in  its  nature  the  fairest,  l)ecause 
it  distiihules  taxation  by  the  measure  of  wealth  and  expenditure, 
is  wholly  lost  si^ht  of,  and  the  j^oods  employed  bv  the  poor  arc 
visited  by  a  much  hea\ier  rate  of  taxation  than  those  bv  the 
opident.  The  richest  muslin  and  the  coarsest  calico,  the  cloth  of 
Sedan  and  the  ser<;e  of  Devon  pay  the  same  amount  per  cwt. 
Hence  articles  of  low  (piality  —  such  as  are  used  b\'  the  many, 
siicii  as  would  have  the  larj^cst  sale  —  are  wholly  excluded  from  the 
markets  of  the  Lea_t;ue. 

It  cannot  be  disputed  that  the  aiJ  valorem  system,  as  applied  to 
manufactures,  has  many  incon\eniences  and  dilliculties.  It  is 
not  easy  alwavs  to  ascertain  e\  en  the  ap[)roximative  \ahie  ;  and 
with  the  number  of  custom-houses  by  which  <;(iods  are  allowed 
to  be  imported  throu<;h  a  frontier,  both  of  sea  antl  land  so  various 
and  extensive  as  that  of  the  Commercial  Leat^ue,  it  would  be  out 
of  the  (juestion  to  seek  for  a  sulliciencv  of  custom-house  function- 
aries, with  knowled'jfe  and  experience  competent  to  the  protec- 
tion of  the  revenue  against  fraud.  There  is  no  system  so  sim[)le 
as  that  of  v,ei<;bt ;  it  is  intellijj^ible  to  everybody;  it  is,  too,  a 
jj^enerally  popular  system,  as  it  atlbrds  no  latitude  lor  the  caprice 
of  the  oilicer,  and  opens  no  door  to  the  frauils  of  the  importer. 
It  mii;ht  probably  be  associated  with  some  classification  of  arti- 
cles, if  not  too  detailed  or  complicateil,  into  a  few  i^reat  divisions  ; 
but  the  desirableness  of  a  thorough  change  in  the  svstem  it>eli 
may  well  be  doubted,  and  such  a  proposal  is  not  likely  to  be 
entertained. 

The  Americans  have  stronj^ly  objected  to  the  svstem  of  lev\  int^ 
duties  "()}•  weight,  instead  of  on  value.  They  have  represented 
that  the  duty  of  5.^  dollars  on  their  tobacco,  beinj^  the  same  as 
that  levied  on  the  tobaccos  of  the  Havana  and  the  Spanish  colonies, 
is,  in  fact,  a  discriminating^  <^hity  on  their  produce,  even  to  the 
extent  of  zoo  to  300  dollars  per  cent.  They  complain  that  wiiile 
the  duties  in  the  United  States  j\\  the  articles  imported  from  Ger- 


W-d 
as 
lies, 
Itlic 
liilc 
icr- 


THE   ZOLI.VERfcilN. 


H5 


many  do  not  upon  the  whole  amount  pav  more  than   an   avcrap^e 
of  si*  pcT  cent.,  tlic  imports  from   the  I'nitod  States   into  the  Zoll 


erem  pay 


46  p 


er  cent.  (Uil\ 


'I'liev  represent  that  I'rnssia  levies 


on 


American  produce  a  ^loss  revenue  ot"  77(),6o6  dollars;  and 
while  the  United  States  receive  onh'  IS9.663  dollars  iVom  imports 
of  the  Zdll  \'erein.  '')f  ahout  4  millions  of  dollais  exported  from 
the  Commercial  Lea<;ue   to   the  I'nited  States  3  millions  (i^  mil- 


lions o 


f  1 


mens,  i  million  ot   sil 


aiul   half  a  million   merino  and 


other  similar  articles)  pay  no  dutv  at  all.  The  remaining  million 
is  principally  composeil  of  j^lass,  hanlwaie,  hosiery,  etc.,  paying 
from  20  to  2^  per  cent. 

The  original  intention  of  the  Prussian  ta.ritV  has  certainlv  been 
much  (lepaited  iVom,  and  the  general  jirinciplc  which  was  put 
forward  has  not  been  carried  out  in  its  details.  For  not  onlv  did 
the  Prussian  government,  in  its  ollicial  correspondence,  declare 
that  it  was  its  j)urpose  not  to  lav  duties  exceeiling  tVom  10  to  15 
per  cent.,  hut  the  Commercial  League  itself  professed  to  make 
the  Prussian  tarill"  the  basis  of  the  legislation  of  the  union  ;  and 
the  ma\inuim  intended  to  be  established  by  the  Prussian  tariif 
was  an  ai/  valorem  10  jier  cent,  on  manui'actures  ;  for  lliat  taritV 
piovides  that  *'  The  duty  on  consniuption  in  foreign  fabrics  and 
manutactured  goods  shall  not  exceed  10  i)er  cent.  ;  and  it  shall  be 
less,  wliene\er  a  smaller  dutv  can    be    imposed  without   injiirv  to 

Hut   the   duties  levied  being,  on  cotton 


tiie    national    iiiiiustrv 


>'  1 


manufactures 


I  OS . 


per  cwt..  on    woollens  x. 


los. 


on    Hard- 


wares i'S  ^s..  on  conunon  linens  33s.,  on  line  lir.-.-ns  ;£.'3  6s..  and 
on  silks  .£16  los.,  per  cwt  ,  do.  on  the  whole,  greatly  exceed  the 
pro])osed  10  pi.r  cent.  The  s\  stem  of  imposing  the  duty  by 
weight  has  the  ailvantage  of  great  simplicity,  but  it  acts  in 
complete  hostilitv  to  the  ad  valorem  princi|)le.  as  the  duty  in- 
creases, instead  of  diminishing,  with  the  lowness  and  coarseness 
of  the  article;  so  that  the  operation  oi"  the  tarill'  is  as  complete 
an  exclusion  of  everv  low-priced  mamit'aclure  as  if  it  were  abso- 
lutelv  prohibited.  Uiuler  the  intluencc  of  this  state  of  things 
the  tlutv  on  cotton  goods  varies  trom  3?,  to  120  per  cent. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  this  system  fails  in  the  very  ends 
proposed,  naiueh  ,  to  distribute  the  amount  of  protection  in  pro- 
portion to  the  backwardness  of  the  manufactun;.  On  certain 
articles  the  amount  of  dutv  is  so  heavy  as  completely  to  exclude 


>  "  Allgenieinc  Zeitunj;,"  id  December,  1S34. 


'I 


i: 


Hi 


)ij* 


■  il 


.ilft: 


146 


SEI.F.CTIONS. 


torci<j;n  coinjictition,  where  the  home  production  reriuires  no 
such  eiicourajicnient  as  that  atloided  hy  the  taritl";  and  on  others, 
where  a  prolcctin;^  (hitv  is  recjuired  \)y  the  concUtion  of  the  home 
pnxhiclion.  the  (hitv  on  the  lorei^n  article  is  small,  and  insuf- 
licient  to  check  its  introduction.  Hut  the  general  result  of  the 
tariir  is  to  exclude  the  f'orei<^n  articles  of  low  (juality  and  <;enoral 
consumption,  and  thus  to  keep  the  larj^e  demand  exclusi\ely  for 
the  home  manufactuiers.  (>ne  hanet'nl  elVect  is,  however,  that 
the  iiicre.ised  price  is  levied  on  those  who  are  least  able 
to  pav,  a)id  levied  on  articles  of  tiie  lowest  \aliie.  for  the 
l)iece  j;oods  wiiich  are  consumed  by  the  opulent  are  jirecisely 
those  upon  which  the  smallest  ainoimt  of  duty  is  collected. 

It  has.  indeed,  been  art^ued  that  the  levyin;^"  heavy  duties  upon 
manufactures  of  ordinary  (piality.  so  as  to  exclude  them  iVom  the 
markets  of  the  League,  is.  in  fact,  to  create  a  demand  for  superior 
articles,  and  so  conter  a  benet't  upon  the  German  consumer  ;  but 
to  tlie  immense  multitude  of  consumers,  cos^  is  the  all-im|)ortant 
consideration  ;  and,  to  den\  access  to  low-priced  articles, —  - or  by 
prohibitory  duties  on  foreii^n    fabrics,  considerably  to  elevate  the 


P 


rice  of  the   home-made  article. 


IS,  m   all  cases 


11 


to  1 


evv  an  un- 


tan-  and  unecpiai  contril)Ution  on  the  poor,  and  m  many  cases 
wholly  to  exclude  them  from  the  enjoyment  of  what  woukl  other- 
wise be  accessible  to  them.  In  fact,  to  exclude  the  ordinary 
manufactures  of  foreij^n  countries  is  to  give  a  special  premium 
to  the  production  of  oidiiiary  manufactures  at  home,  is  to  create 
for  the  least  advanced,  the  least  intellii^ent  industry,  a  lield  of 
peculiar  favor;  and  it  may  be  well  doubted  if  the  monopoly  thus 
established  for  the  manufacture  of  low  articles  is  beneHcial  to 
them.  That  it  is  prejudicial  to  the  consimiers  is  obvious,  but 
some  of  the  ablest  writers  on  theZoll  Verein  have  expressed  their 
conviction  that  the  uncontrolled  power  sjjiven  to  the  German 
manufacturer  of  low  articles  in  the  (jerman  market  is  baneful  as 
well  to  his  own  as  to  tiie  public  interest.' 

The  tendency  of  opinion  in  Germanv  is  towards  free  trailc. 
Almost  every  autlior  of  reputation  represents  the  existin^j  system 
as  an   instiument    tor    obtaininj^  chantjes  in   favor  of  commercial 


liberty.     One   of    the   most    distiniiuished   writers 


on 


tl 


le   com- 


m 


ercial   league,  in    cautioning  the  capitalist  from  embarking  his 


7'/. 


wealth    in    the    protected   branches    of  industry,   savs,  "  V 


ou   are 


'  See  Osiiindcr,  "  Belraclilungeii   iiber  tteii   Zall  Preussisclien  Tarif."     Stutgart,  18.57,  PP- 


SQi  O"- 


ulc. 
Item 

om- 
his 
arc 

7.PP' 


TIIF   Zni.I.VKRF.lX. 


'47 


oil  are 


"  1 


biiildini,'  ships  which  are  not  pi'epared  for  the  storm, 

creatin!4  interests  whieli  cannot   make  their  was'  throuj^li  a  ciisis 

you  are  erectin<r  edil'ices  upon  sand 

It  shonld  he  home  in  minil.  however,  that  the  tarills  ot"  the  Zoll 
\'erein  are  far  more  Uheral  than  the  ohl  tarills  ot'  Prussia,  wiiich 
were  intended  wholly  to  exclude  t\)rei<,ni  manufactures.  JJut 
diminished  iluties  ha\e  not  injured  her  f)wn  manufactures,  \o 
man  is  found  to  deny  that  they  have  made  a  much  y;reater  projrrtss 
under  a  less  protection  than  the\  m  ide  when  the  home  maiket 
was.  In  a  greater  protection,  closed  against  toivij^n  competition. 

'I'he  Prussian  tarill"  of  i^iS  was  a  j^Mcat  im])rovement  on  pre- 
cedin<»  legislation,  hut  itcontaineil  many  inconj^ruities,  which 
were  chaui^ed  hy  the  taritV  of  iSij.  On  many  articles  the  duties 
varied  between  tiie  eastern  and  western  piovinces.  Conuiion 
clotlis.  which  paid  zG  rix-d.  --'_•  ^r.,  and  line  cloths  jiaviui^ 
.|7ii\-d.  107,,  <;i-.  in  the  eastern  provinces,  paiil  only  21  lix-d. 
1834  <;r.  and  43  ri\  cl,  7l_.  <fr.  in  the  western;  cotton  twist  ])aiil 
2  rix-d.  10  Ljr.  in  the  eastern,  and  only  half  that  amount  in  the 
western  provinces:  while  dved  twist  paid  6  rix-d.  lyjj  <;r.  in  the 
former,  and  5  rix-d.  17'j  <j;r.  in  the  latter.  White  and  colored 
woven    cottons  and    cottons   mixed    with    tinead    paid    the    same 


duties  as    Ihie   woollens,    viz. 


47    ' 


ix-c 


1.     I05 


8   <^r,  and  43  rix-( 


d. 


7/'2  t?'-  '  '"^^'  I'rinted  and  line  cottons,  61  lix-d.  7,1  \  <;r.  in  eastern, 
and  57  rix-d.  in  western  districts;  jijray  linens  2  rix  d.  and  i  rix-d. 


irr.,    and  bleached,    12    rix-d.     6';   and    8  rix-d.   8 


L'r 


silks,  171  rix-d.  3/3  "^r.  in  the  eastern,  and  167  rix-d.  in  the 
western  department ;  half-silks,  79  rix-d.  13!  j  j^r.,  and  7^  rix-d. 
10  iiv.     Common  iron  <roods  paid  6  rix-d.  17!-.  "r.  in  the  east,  and 


/ 


5  rix-il.  2' J  gr.  in  the  west;   line  iron  {.joods,  24  rix-d.  i 


ari( 


20   rix-( 


1.   10    LM- 


nul  cutlerv  and  tine  hardware,  79  rix-d. 
1314  gr.  and  75  rix-d.  10  fijr.  The  tarill'  of  1822  left  the  distinc- 
tion only  existin^f  on  cotton  tw  ist ;  introduced  a  uniform  duty  of 
30  rix-d.  on  woollens,  and  6  rix-d.  on  dyed  tw  ist ;  50  rix-d.  on 
cottons  generally,  but  reduced  the  duty  on  cottons  mixed  with 
thread  to  10  rix-d.,  which  it  also  levied  on  bleached  linens; 
lowered  the  duties  on  silks  to  100  rix-d.,  and  on  half-silks  to 
50  rix-d.  ;  on  common  iron  goods  levied  6  rix-d.,  on  line  10  rix-d., 
and  on  cutlery,  and  hardware  50  rix-d. 

'J'hus  the  tarill'  of  1822  was  in  every  respect   an    improvement 


lit  ^v* 


i 


Sfc  Osiaiuler,  "  BetrachtunKtii,"  p.  vy. 


148 


SELECTIONS. 


on  that  of  iSiS.  In  1825  the  (hitii's  on  \vof)llcn  warps  were  re- 
duced from  T,()  ii\-(l.  to  10  ri\-(l.  ;  and  those  on  earpets  of  wool 
and  thread  from  ;^o  ii\-(L  to  20  ri\-d.  ;  (hose  on  line  HniMis  and 
cottons  mixed  with  lias  weie  raised  iVom  10  rix-il.  to  20  rix-d. 
In  iSjS  the  chities  on  Ihnmels,  meUons,  etc.,  were  rednced  from 
30  rix-d.  to  10  rix-d.,  and  on  woollen  carpets  fiom  ;^()  to  20  rix-il. 

Up  to  this  period  half  the  duty  was  payable  in  f'r/n/cr/c/is  d'or, 
which  was  an  anj^meiitation  of  ahont  (>  jier  cent,  upon  the  tarilV. 
In  1S32  the  duty  on  woollen  yarn  was  lowered  iVom  6  rix-d.  to  15 
silver  <;r.  :  on  carpets  in  {General  it  was  lowered  from  30  rix-d.  to 
22  rix-d.  ;  on  woollens  it  was  raised  from  30  rix-d.  to  33  rix-d.  ; 
on  cotton  yarns  2  rix-d.  wlMc  established  as  a  general  duty  ;  5^ 
rix-d.  on  cottons  and  cutlery,  instead  of  50,  which  50  continued 
to  be  levied  on  cotton  and  llax  mamifacturers  ;  and  the  duties  on 
silk  were  raised  from  100  rix-d.  to  i  10  rix-d.  The  tarilf  of  the 
Zoli  \'erein,  in  iS3_),  reduced  the  duty  on  carptts  from  \2  rix-d. 
to  20  rix-d.  ;  and  on  woollens  j^eneralh  tVom  33  rix-d.  to  30  rix-d.  ; 
on  cottons  from  55  rix-d.  to  50  rix-d.  'J'he  dutv  on  linen  thread 
was  raised,  in  1S37,  from  6  rix-d.  to  8  rix-d.;  and  on  twisted 
c;)tton  to  the  same  amount.  The  tarilV  of  iS.^o  has  lowereil  the 
duties  on  cutlery  and  hardwaie  from  55  rix-d.  to  50  rix-d. 

The  chan<4es  introduced  by  the  Conj;ress  of  1839  into  the  taritls 
of  1837-9,  are  not  very  considerable.  The  adoption  of  the  uiiit\- 
of  50  kil.  as  the  cwt.  of  the  tarill",  operates  as  an  elexation  of  2~ 
per  cent.,  in  all  cases,  when  it  applies  to  articles,  the  duly  on 
which  is  char<i^ed  bv  \vei<4;ht,  as  is  the  case  with  the  major  part 
of  the  jijoods  mentioned  in  the  taril]'.  Tlie  s\stem  of  tarillcalion 
has  been  simplilled  throuij;hout  l»v  the  cuttinjr  otl"  all  fractions 
of  lbs.  The  most  important  chaiiL^e  is  the  leduction  of  the  sugar. 
rice,  and  hardware  duties.  .  .  .  The  standard  of  tl  •  Horin 
is  altered  from  24  i^old  standard  to  24A,  L^old  standard  ;  so  that, 
under  the  new  taiitl".  the  rix  dollar  is  now  represented  bv  I'l  i\., 
instead  of  i '-J.  as  in  the  former  tarill'.  Thus,  the  ii;eneral  ate  of 
import  duty  (when  there  is  no  special  exception)  was,  in  1837-9, 
one-half  Prussian  dollar,  or  i^  silver  fjr.,  represented  by  :;o  kreut- 
zers  ;  but  at  present  the  oeneral  import  duty  of  one-half  Prussian 
dollar  is  represented  by  52^  krs. 

Attacheil  to  the  custom-house  taritVwill  be  found  the  various 
lejj^ulations  under  which  the  transit  duties  are  levied  in  the  States 
of  the  Prussi;in  Union. 

The  le<iislature  of  I'russia   has  ^enerall\-   made   the  transit   of 


re- 

V(M)1 

and 

X-(l. 

Voin 
ix-(l. 


or 


inii. 
.()  15 
a.  to 


<-(i 


.■).•> 


mice  I 

.'S   oil 

f  tl 


le 


ix-cl 


X-(l 


ircacl 
,istc(l 


111 


a  uie 


taritVs 
unity 

of   J'i 

ily  on 

part 

ation 

Iclioiis 

aigai". 

Horin 

that. 


III'    of 

:.7-9' 

xlCUl- 

lissian 


linous 

Uatcs 


isi 


t   of 


iiii-:  /(III  \i:ki;i\. 


'40 


t  lil'oi:'4li    li(.|-    pioN  iiii'i' 


s   a    M'liiii'   0 


I     rc'\  (.'lun.'  ;     ami    it    has 


IKi 


III 


)   hcTii  \\hi>ll\   iiiipinihu't  i\  c.  a',   a    hir^c  pMitimi  nf  I'nl.iiiil   and 
uithnii    Kiissia   iiupDit    ;in(l   (.'Xi'miI    lliKni^h    ihr    l'rii^->iaii    ports 
Ihi.'    Uahii'.      The'   (hllliiill  ic^   whirh     Kii-^i.ni     K"' i^l.H  ii  m     has 


aK\a\s   thiiiwii    in    tlir    was'    o|'    tuin^il    iiia\,    pi'iii,i| 


)-.    Ii.isr     had 


siiIlK-     lIllhU'lHr     nil      thl'     (.'(lUlUI 


1.   ..f  1 


iiis'>ia  ;    111    lakt.    the    ht-avv 


traiisit-diil  \    iiiipoMii  011  l;(mk|s  impnitid   ihinii^h  tlir  p^it-,  iij'  thi; 
llallic    (.iiiilil     lianllx    Itr    inaiiitaiiir>i    wru'    tlii'     rni-'-i,iii    tiaiisit- 


s\  siriii  a  \\  isi'  and  hi  ii'r:d  <iiu' 


ill'  SI mtlicrii  Mall  ^  > li  liu'  union 


lia\r.  iol  llir  most  p;ii|.  ciidra\  olrd  to  sfCiilr  tliioil'^li  tluir  tiT- 
I  itoiirs  a  I'lii'ap  transit  lor  coiuniodit  ii's  iiiliaidid  loi  oiIkt  c<iiin- 
tiirs.      Till'  'HfiKTal  principles  ol    thi.'  transit  law   an-,  tliat.  — 

I .  All  aiticlrs  ailmltfi'd  \\  it  I  nail  duty  shall  Iran-it  \\  it  hoi  it  diit  v 
tliroiiL;h  tlu'  /oil  Wrrin. 

z.      All  aitiiirs  nj)on  which  the  export  and  iinnorl    diilirs.  si'p- 


arate  or  to'^i'thrr.  do  not  anioiint  to  .',  dol.or 
to  i)a\    llie  aiiioiiiit  </!'  the  s;iid  diitiis. 


,1  .  pel  e\\  I. .  an 


Ad    ai  tieles  upon  w  hieh   the  export   and    impoit   duties   ex- 


per 


eeed    .,  ilo|.,  or   :^j.',    Ur.  per  ewt.,  shall    \rd\  on   liaiisit    .',    di 
ewl. 

I)iil  theii'  all'  main  exeeptioiis.      The  exceptional  tiaii--ii  duties 
levied  li\   till'  taiills  of  ihe   Zoll  W'lein  are  :   (  )ii  eotlMii  and   other 


.  o  1  n  1  n ' '    01 


r  ,14'oiii;^-   thidii'^h    llaltie  port-.,    |    dol.    (iJs.)    | 


)er 


■\\  I.  ;     ihroii'h  otiiir  roai 


.1.     (Os.)     I 


)er  ew 


HI    eoltoii 


twist  and  d\i'(l  woollen  \arn.  jdol.:  oiieoppL'i.  eoiue.  ilc,  i 
dol.  per  ewt.;   on  raw   sn^ar.  jo  s.  '^v.   (J'^.) 

IJiil  L;oods  L;oiiiH  iVoiu  the  Oiler  nioiith  on  the  left  hank  of  the 
Oder,  westward,  towards  tju'  Kliiiie.  and  ihroii^ii  the  lroiiiIt.'r  \)v 
tweeii  Nell- !  >eniii,  in  Silesia,  to'i'hoiii.  in  llavaria:  or.  (  nteiiii^ 
the  ri^ht  hank  ol'  ihi'  Khine  a^^ain.  to  trawrsf  llie  Khiiie  fm-  ex- 
port. Cottons,  woollens,  and  main  otJu'r  article-^.  1  dol.  (  -^s.) 
per  cwl. 

(ioods  cou'.eved  1)\-  the  left  hank.  (M'  011  tlie  Kliini'.  or  on  the 
Moselle,  and  oxi'ilhe  southern  lioiilier  hitwei'ii  ll.imhnr^'  and 
I'^'eilassiiiL;',  or  o\er  the  iK^rtheiii  froiitiir  hetween  the  Rhine  and 
tlic  Elhe,  10  sip  (IS.)   ])er  ewt. 

Goods  con\e\ed  over  the  soiilhern  frontier,  or  Irom  the  Rhine 
to  the  Daiuihe,  .\},  sij.   (SJd.)  pel"  cwl. 

The  details  will  be  found  in  the  .\ppcudix  (III.)  attached  to 
the  Taritr. 

The  transit  s_\stein  of  the  Zoll  W'rein  is  .somewhat  cumplieatcd, 


w 


t 


'd. 

t  J'. 


I  "It 

k  till 
,:  tilt 


•1/ 


I  ^o 


M.i,i:(  rioNS. 


atid  iiiioiiM^ti'iit  Willi  till- ''■(•lUTiil  .iiul  ^iini 


li;ii;ii  liT  1)1'  t 


H    Ir 


r^!ii 


islllliiiii.       'I'ili-  lilMrs  ill   till'  .\))|)illi 


lix  (V..  ['.  I). 


|)|).  i^W      I   1  _•  )     \S  11 


cxhil'il  till'  an  1'  Mint  nt  ^(kkIs  pa^sni^  tliroii^li  I  he  saiinns  pioN  mccs 
dl'llu-  I,ia_;nc.  (  )ik'  v;riu'ral  liaiisit  (liil\  ,  <il' 1.  .\\  amount,  woiild 
I'll  lainh  lu-  \  i  r\'  las  i  ual'Ii'  tn  llir  imii'x  iii'^  tiadi'  n|'  the  iitii'iii  ;  iKir 
ail'  till'  u  a '-I  Ills  ■  |iiilr  1  il)\  iuiis  \',  li\  .  in  t  lir  rm  >'4iiiti'in  1 1|  a  prinri- 
jilr  (it  (I  piilil  \  .  till'  11  in\  i'\aiut'  ol'^diKU  tin  mrji  ii  i  lain  Stairs 
of  till'  nni'in  shdiiM  It  luailfil  with  nnu  li  luM\icr  lisral  iliaim'.s 
than  ihKiii'.di  diIhts.  It  wniiM  >vv\)\  inoii.-  aridiijant  with  suuihI 
piiiuipli --  til  iiu'i>iM'a'.;c'  tran--it  tliidU'^li  the  di-trict--  whiili  l;i'<'- 
jLiiapliiL- ill\  piT^riit  till'  L;!i'atrst  liu'ililii's.  ratlirr  than  Id  L;i\c' 
ad\aiilam"-.  I)\  JnWiT  dulir^.  In  distrii.'K  K'ss  lonx mlrnlK   siliiatrd. 

I'l'iliaps  till.'  wisest  (.lUii'M.'.  in  tlu'  (.•iinninn  inli'H-l  i<\  tin-  Zdji 
N'lTfin.  Wdnld  Ih'Io  (.'I  iniplcli'K  di^a-siK'iatr  all  ll'-ral  i.'nnsid(.-ia- 
ti'ius  iViiin  ilu'  (puslimi  of  transit,  and  In  U\\  n'l  (illur  dnt\  than 
is  iKCi'ssaiA  I'M  pa\in;_;'  the  i'\pin>('s  dl  CdlU^lioi)  .nid  (.diitiiil. 
Tlu'  pidliiliildiv  taril1'--dr  l^ussia,  I'dlaiid.  and  An-^tria,  riTtainlv 
iV(|irnr  lid  lu-w  cliaim.'  or  iinpfdiiiuni  td  In.'  adikd  1)\  a  lu'avs 
transit  duts  In  tlu'  Cdsl  tA'  tin-  aitick-s  iinpdilrd  llirdii;;li  tlic  Stall's 
ol"  tlir  l.ra^ni'.  And,  c\c\\  with  tin."  hi.;h  tali'  dl"  dnl\  lr\  ird  (of 
pcihap^  ratlui'  nil  accdiinl  of  the  lii^h  rate  ol"  duU  li'\ic'd).  tht- 
pi'iiiniaiN  intiTi'st  to  prcsrrvi-  tlir  preseiil  s\sti'iii  is  small.  —  far 
too  small  Id  idinilc'ihalancf  the  disad\  anta;4es  and  detriments 
whieh   the   s\steiu   creates. 

.Aiidther  dli\  idiis  ineoin  enience  and  loss  aeerni's  to  the  /oil 
\'i'rein  iVdiu  the  mdti\es  whieli  the  lowi'r  transit  dues  ol'  l''iaiu'e, 
Holland,  and  Uilj^inm  create  t'or  IransportinL^' '4'o(.mIs  thron^h  the 
ports  of  those  eoiinliies  iiist.'ad  ot'  the  ports  ot  (ii'iinanx'  :  added 
to  whiih.  a  hahit  of  forwardiiiLj  artielis  li\-  a  paitieiilai"  line 
creates  new  interi'st  and  niolixes,  \\  hich  maUe  it  dilliciilt  to  levert 
to  a  former  state  ot  ihin^^s.  \\  hen  i)nsiness  has  heen  forced  out 
of  its  natnial  channel  into  a  no\el  course  it  does  not  prompth 
resume  its  old  direction,  and  the  "^louad  lost  is  often  not  a;_;ain  to 
be  won. 

The    lowest   transit    I'ntv   levied   in  the   ZoU    Vcrein,  with   i' 
exception   of    I'.ie   road    t'rom    Ma\ence    to  the    sonthern   fii 


IS 


f 


.sil\cr   •'■i- 


(5'-  *!•)    1 


)er   cwt.  ;   hut    on   the   main  ro 


Austria  transit  is  free  from  cl)art;e,  while  in  I'^rance  the  charL;i  is 
less  than  half  the  amount  of  the  niiiiinnoit  Prussian  duty.  At 
the  same  time,  the  advauta;4"cs  which  the  railroads  of  lielj^ium 
oH'cr,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Cjerniaiiy, 


■Ills 


•11 


K'C. 


lllC 


It  It'll 


lllH' 


■It 


oUl 


|)Uy 
In  to 


At 

iiiin 


iiii;  /ni  I  \  i:ki,i.\. 


IS   cslil  ijlsliri]    li\     till'   X'ii'iin.i    ( 'i  ni'' i  (.■'^^,    \\<iiili!   ,ill    m>cm)    I' 


I  ^I 


( >]){ 


iMli-  in  >hM\\ni'''  Imw  nnuli  it  !•-  Im'   the  inttrcsl  i>|    ihc  |  (•.(■.iic 


)'t>.-.|i  U'     nirins 


1 


lu'    alU'iilum 


t'lii'ilil  itr    ti\in-^i!    lis     (.■\iT\     I 

iv'h  li;iN  I'lrn  nl    1  itr  vcais  sn  sini'i'ssfnllx    ^ivcn    in  (ifrnnmv    l<> 


w  n 


the  niipri  i\  cnicnl  i  >l  tlir  1 1  lkI 


aiiil  ,1 


1!  ..il 


u^i'  nirau'-  ni  1 1  miniunira- 


tiiai.   lannot    idi'ivr   a    '^fratci'    trii  Mupinsc    than    !»\     in^i  inra'jr- 
\t   ;4i\i'n  |i>  tlio  tran^^il  IraiU'  ti\   a  \'<\\  rilr  Mt"(|iii\    KnIciI.       I'lic 


inri 


iii'i  I 


lit  ^  (li'|i(i-iti^il  li\-  tlir  tian-p'iii  .  i|"  nu'i  >,  liandi.-r,  afi'.  iVnni  then' 
(liirn>-iini.  apt  li>  i-^iMpi-  allcntlMn;  ImiI  pnliaps  tiuii^  arc  none 
\\  'iii,'h  '.^i\  r  a  '41  raliT  aiti\  it\  Ii  i  a'j,ri^nll  ",i  al  ini  lii>li\ .  ni  n-  \\liii-|i  aic 
nmrr  iiUiniatrK  inniKCliil  with  tin-  pnMii'  pi  >)-,pii  il\  and  llii- 
i^i'ncral    p!n^^l•^s  dl'  inipidx  cnuiit   am!   >.  i\  ill/aliun. 

'I'lu'ic  i>  ci  insidi  lal 'K'  diU'KultN   in  i"-!  iniat  in'^  tlir  ainnnnl  ot    llic 
innxiits  iViini  (ileal    llrilain  into  tin-  SlaK>  oi'  tin.'  /nl!  \' 


I  n  III.  as 


llu'\  pniLlratt'  tlnMii;^!!  >(>  nian\  ihaniU'U.  — iinl  nnl\  thi'in'^h 
(iiTinaii  ports.  Imt  I'loni  tlir  |)nrt>  oi'  i  lojland  and  lUlL^inni  and 
till-    llan>-c   'i'owii^.      i'vtiin   lianiliin'i   and   tlu-    IJlu-   c^nocialh'   a 


ai'^i-    pai 


also 


t   ol    tiu'    wants    oi"  till'   W'lrin    ar 


(.'    snpplu^il  ;   tiirri'    an- 


ir^c^    mipi  ii  talKins    tliionnh    KnlUTdain    and    tl.f     KhiiH-.    a 


well  as   IhronLih    hii'incn   and  Ihi'  \\  cm'I 


!nt, 


h\   a    r<Mnpar 


ISOIl 


.>l'  the  i\tiirns  <tt'  (uir  imports  iVom  ainl  cNpoits  \u  thr  \aiions 
circiinijac'ciil  coinitiit^s,  which  haw  lu'iii  pifpan-d  with  his 
ac(.'n--tonu-d  acciiracN'  and  dili^cnci-  1»\  Mi.  ^'olln'4•  (Appciuhx 
\'I.  to  IX..  r.  1).  pp.  I  I  :j-i^()),  with  tin.'  \K\\  (Klailrd  stali-incnts 
<,dwn   irn."   li\    tho    I'lii^sian   i;i)\  irmnrnl.   all   ot    whirh  diHiinunts 


w  I 


1  he  rnund  in  the  Appendix 


(\l.  to  Wil..  1'.  1).  pp.  I  I  vj^r)), 


an   appro\iinat  i\  r   (.'stimalc    of    the    ;_;f!U'ial    ainonnt,    and    of   ihc 
>pc'».'ial  dftaiU  of  onr  comiiKTcial  iiitc  i\'onrsi'.  will  ln'  olitaiiu-d. 

'Ihoiij^h  the  sIiohl;  and  iricsistihlc  ti'iidriK'\  ol'  an  orL^aiiizatioti 
like  that  of'  thr  Comnieieial  lA'a^iii'  is  to  hk^nd  thi^  si^parate  in- 
terests ol'  its  coiiipoiient  pai!>  into  the  eominvn  and  paramount 
interests  of  the  whole,  and    to    <'i\e    to  the  I  nioii. 


as   a    iioii\.  an 


iidlnence  sullicientU   powiTlnl    to  predominate  <i\er  the  h.e  il    and 


illi 


that  r 


ilial  inlliieiues  ol    tiu^  various  elemeiils  ot  wliieli   that  t  mon    is 

■  Miposed,  still    much    time   and    miieh    jndieioiis    legislation  will 

e    re(iuircd.    in    ordc^r   that  (he  Inioii    may    tairly    represent    t!ie 

various   interests  w  Inch    are  eomi)rehendc^(l    in    its    action.      Ilap- 

pilv  the  greater    interests  are   and    ninst   lon;_^-   continue  intimati-lv 

connected  with    the   foreii;n    trade  of  (iermaiu  — for  thonj^di    the 


f  Iv 


I   'Mi 


.i        i 


1 


knv 


'  ()si;iii(lcr,  pp.    115-117. 


I'* 


13J  ^i.i.i:*  iioNs. 

in.iiml.uliirlii',;  ttii(lriiiii's  (if  a  ]>'>i  lion  <ii  tin-  St.ilcs  <>l  tlu'  I  iiii  m, 
assoi  i.itiil  a>  Muli  tiiidiiu  irs  aii'  w  illi  a  ir^tlv  ss  ai  ti\  il\  —  a  spii  it 
nt' as-M  iiial  ii  111.  a  iiiiitv  of  |  ■111 1>' isr.  a  i.'i  mil  liiird  aiticni,  wliiili  <4i\i' 
tlu'iii  iiU'H-  than  llu  ir  I  lii  ainl  lull  iiiip' ii  laiui'  in  llir  ~(ii:;4'4K'  Inr 
•.\lial  i>  calKil  ••  |)rii|ii  t  i\  r  lr',;i~lalii  m  ,""  \  rl  it  ^aiinot  lu-  diaiii';! 
thai  llu'ii'  is  in  (  ii  rinaiix  >-ikii  a  L;»'iirial  dill'iision  nt  intclli'^riiri" 
a~.  \\  ill  iIuhL  llif  siiiisUr  inU'ir^I'-  in  tlii'ir  (lianand  \i>y  |)r(iliil  liti  ir\' 
dntiisni)  l.iui;^n  inaiiulai.iiir(.'.  Aiitl  at  liu'  pitsiiit  ninnunt  the 
a^i  iiiiltni  al  inlvii'sls.  takm.;  in  thr  w  \\t>\c  lA  ihr  i.i  uiirdri  ati'il  stali-s. 
irpir-^riit  a  \a>lK  '_;iialiT  anii'nnl  ol  ra|iilal  and  lahni-  than  thr 
uiannlaitinin  j;.  I'lU'  a'_;riii  lit  ni  al  inUirst  i-\i-~t  -  r\  i  r\  \\  hctc  and 
ill  inaii\  i\lin-^i\r  piDvinifs  <i|  tiir  I  iiion  witiiout  an\  lamntn- 
lialaiuin;4  niannla^t urin;4  intiiisi.  whdr  llir  nianut'ailnrin',;-  intrr- 
ot  is  t')  a  '_;riat  r\Unl  <<[  iiiMdi  1 11  '^inwlh.  and  i.<inlliu'd  to  a 
limili'd  |)oiti.iii  oj  ihi'  lirld  o!  |)i  oihu'tioii.  And  i.'\rn  lliat  manii- 
ta>.tniin'4  iiitiii'st  ».an  onl\  saIrK  list  upon  a  .s\>,uaii  o|'  inodriatc 
(hitu's;  jiii  as  soon  as  it  is  aMr  to  snppl\  thi.-  niaikiis  <■['  I  Ivl- 
nian\  .  it  niiisi.  tor  its  snrphis  piodiur  h*.'  throw  n  into  (.•oinpctition 
w  it  li  thr  iiiannlai,tm\  I  s  o|'  olhi  r  lands,  and  ».'an  onl\  (.onipi  Ir  suc- 
K(.'ss|n||\  i)\  (//(•(//>  prod.ul  ion.  to  \\h;i'h  a  jjioU  (.tix  (.•  and  piohihi- 
tor\  s\>uin  is  111  its\ir\  natiii  r  o])posi'd  ;  |,,i-  iisohjcit  and  its 
cssfiKi'  an-  to  piomisi.'  and  tti  sniiii.'  hi^li  |)iin.s  to  thr  home 
niaiuilaitiin'r.  And  il"  the  inteiest  ot  I'riissia  tor  (.•\aiiiple  he 
eoiisideied,  I'llissia.  \\  hiosr  popiihitioii  eoinpiisi^  |\\o-thiids  ol' 
till'  \\  hoK-  po|Milation  ot  the  L  > 'iimiereial  I  nion.  it  is  eertain  that 
not  oiil\  are  iu  i'  tine  interests  hostile  to  aii\  s\stcm  \\hi<.li  pro- 
hiliits  the  intiodiietioii  ol  toii'i'^ii  iiiaiinlaeliiies,  luT  eapital 
en^a^ed  in  inaiiut.u  lines  heiii;^  iiuonsiiUaaiile  ;  hut  the  L;eiieral 
eon\iilion  ot  tiie  heads  ot  depart  nieiits  ni  l'riis-,ia  is  opposed  to  a 
pi  I  ilei'i  iii;4  le;.'  ''latioii. 

The  lliianeial  lueessiiies  ot"  I'liissia  have  l"i  eipientlv  heiai  put 
t'oiwaid  as  the  reason  tor  the  hi'^h  rate  ol  duties  I'slal  ilislu'd  1>\ 
the  tarili  ol  tiie  /ojl  Wiriii;'  hut  il  is  eUar  that  iiiaii\ of  t!u' 
1  ales  ale  tar  too  hi^h  to  he  piodiu  ti\  i'  ;  some  (;l'  them  are  wholK 
prohihilor\  ;  and  the  revenue  woulil  eiTtaiiiK  he  hiaieliti'd  hv  a 
eonsideral)ie  lediutii^n.  The  /oil  \  eii'in.  however,  has  never 
hecM  re'j^arded  In  the  eontiaetiii^  Slates  with  a  \  ii'vv  solelv  to  the 
lliianeial  (|uestion;  its  soeia!  and  )o|itieaI  eonsi'iiui'iiees  would 
reeoiu  ile  luanv  ot"  its  nieinheis  even  to  eoiisiilerahle  peeuiiiarv 
saeiiliee.s 


'  ( )si.iiiik'r. 


Li;  /(  M  I  \  i:i;i.i\. 


.■>  ■) 


w 


i.i:  /oi.iAi  Ki;i\. 


r/.' 


S/./// 


I'l^iiM   I,i<;c>Yi"->    I. A   1'ksmi-;   i  r   i. 


I.i:   X»//z: 


■/■/■///  ( 


lU"'  (ifiix   ini 


n;  wi.i'K 


iciiKiml 


\ul..     I.,     I'p 


j;o 


/"//.  ill  Mi:iiu'.  el    / 


rciii.  ;l^^■^lK 


i;il  I'  111 ) .  r--l   1.-  Ill  111 


I  (I'iMiu-  a  I  ,i--^iii.'i;il  lull  (I'UiaimM  i-   (lui 


c'M'-lo   aiiioiiril  Inn    I'lit 


tic-   tolls    ifs    mrii 


Inis    (If    la    C'l  iiitVili'r.itiu:i 


_m'niiaiiii|iK' 


ir.i  Mils 


Am 


lUlll' 


t; 


;s     \iii,- 


.Use  II  |i  llli-s 


(  Hiriiii'.    I  lainlii  uml;'  el    lailictk).    K'    MctI^K'hiI"  (iii'^.    Irs    <l(i>!i('-s 
(Ir   1  li  lUliiii  cl  (III   I. 


iiU'iil'.'.iii'' .  v\   la    nriiu'ii  )aiil 


,Klilriist,in , 


I  ,a   I'lussc  V  tImiiH-  1  in'' I  lie  ])•  iiir  srs  pi  <  i\  Iiiri'>  plai  rt>  in  ilrliur^  ili 


a  C"<iiifr(lrialiiii 


A-  |)riiuai)c'  (Ir  rctlr   assoriatu  m  sc   trmixr   daii^ 


tiailr   (|in  a    IoikK'    la    C'lUilrili'iat 


I'  111 


ailii'K'    i<)   ilu 


;_;c-niiaiiii  |iir   v\    i|iii    ist    aiiisi 


(.■(•1H.'U 


MS    ini'inl  >iis   sf    loiiAi'iit.    a    la    nmiiuii'    iriiniDii    dc 


leans    |)ii  iii|)i  lU'iitiaiiis  a    I  raiuloit.  (I 
(IdiKURs    tt    (It.'    iia\  i'-atioii    nmir    tiiiit( 


licri.'r   s'lr  uii   nii  Met  dc 


All 


(.aiia'4iif 


M; 


ilK- 


tt(iii\ait  siittoiit  sa  laisiin  d'rt  ii'  dans    Tmi '^aiiisat  imi    tci  riturlalc    ft 


)i>litii|iu-  df 


All 


(.■ina''iK'.    (."1  MiiixisiT    ill-    ( 


inarantr    j.tats    pri-^ipu' 


tiiiis  lai 


■Ia\rs  1 


rs  mis  dans    k'-  aiilits.  a\aiit    (.Ikuiiii    srs     haiiii  irs 


lisi-aK's  it  siiii    taiii.      On  a  lointr  (inc.    ihmii'    nar\ciiir  i 


(■   la    irmi- 


tiiiv  all  until'  (In  pa\s.  suit  dti  iimd  an  sm 
siir    nil    I'spaii-    C[v   ;^7<)   :i    I  1 


Mii'st  a  I  est. 


.11' iin(ln.'s.    Us   niarcliaiiili-i-s    n  a- 


\airnt  pas  mollis  di-  si'i/i'  li^iiis  <|i'  dmi  iius  a  travrr-rr.  inni  ('Piii- 
pris  lis  li'^iiis  inti'iii'iirrs  M])part(iiant  a  I'Mt  it.  ,iii\  I'liiiinnihs  ct 
niiMiir  an\  paiticiilii'is  !  I  )r  la.  dis  iVaisrt  dis  pntrs  k\v  tcinps 
(''iiiMiiU's.  (iiii.  I'll  li's   ''ir\aiit    oiitii    nu-iiii'.    ariilairiit  a  la  t^is  la 


\\\ 


I    •<( 


if- 


II<|   •    l 


\     WW 


4H- 


pi'iidiu  timi  I't  la  I'oiisDPiniatiiiii. 


I-a    I'liissi".  (lont    Irs   pii  a  iiii'i's    ((licntalcs   rtaicnt     si'p 

11 


lll'l's      (til 


ii'sti-  di'  la  inoiiaiidiii'  |)ar   Ic  I  l,iiii>\  re.  w    1  )riiiis\\  uk  rt  la  llc^s^ 


isst'l.  (.1  (|ni   son 


lira  it 


li'   iiliis.    i)iut-i-l  !i'.  di'  ir  nil  ill  rill  iiK'iit   dc 


^(111  ti'ii  itdiri'.  prit    rinitiatix  i'  drs   iH'"4Mi'iatiiMis   (|iii    di'vairnt   imi- 


diiiii'  an  Znlh  I'li'in  aitm-l, 
I'illii's  i)af  Ic  Si'hw  ar/.I)()iir 


Si's   (iiivrrtnii's   Inii'iit    d'al>iiiil   ai a  u- 


.•-S. 


(  MKli'lshansrll.    rillli'  dr   SIS  I'lul.lMs 


|)nis.  (Ir 


lS|(i  ;'i    iSjS. 


issonatiDii    iiaissantr    \il    siiri'rssiv  inunt 


\riiir  a   rllr    li's    priiu'ipaiiti's    <>n    diulirs    dc     llrs-r-l  )aniistaill. 
Scliwar/lxturLC-Riidolstailt,      Sa.\c-\\'ciiiiar,      .\i)liall-l5cniiM)Ui  j;, 


\       A- 


'■*    ^ 


I 


I 


Si 

i 


rnii 


m 


\u 


r"' 


I     : 


r^l- 


'54 


si:i,i:(  I  ii  )Ns. 


Aiiliall -I  )r--.:ui.  el  Aiili.ilt  (  oiMlii'ii.  s:iit  poiir  I:i  |i  iialit.'.  .-.nil  p  n\v 
u;ir  paitii-  dr  Iriii  li  1 1  il<  uu'.  In  ci  rtain  iitiinlni'  (I'l-tals  dii 
scLiMi.l  oiilrr.  a\aiit  a  K  iii'  ti  to  la  i'ii\ii'iL'  rt  Ir  W  lit  U  ml 'L'r;4, 
tciilin  lit  (i'cnia\  or  oc  dh  aiv  oiiiriit  dans  Ki|iu'l  iU  V'lsaiont  iiii 
a^raiidiN^fMiciit  iinlinit  do  riiitlmaioo  pi  il  it  iijiio  >\v  la  I'lii-^o: 
iiiai-.  0' pii\  aiiiOii-  i\v  riiuildito  i\c  Uuis  t'llnil^  \un\v  owiistiliior  uiii- 
li'^iio  d.iiiaiiii  ro  do  (|iioli|iic  iiir,)  utaiioo.  iU  so  roimii'oiit  an  ZdH- 
voniii.  lo  2\  mais  iNy^.  I  .a  Sa\o  Mii\  it  Kill'  t'\aiiiplo.  lo  ^o 
inai'>(k'  la  inoino  aiiiuo.  ol  latiaiiia  a  sa  siiilo  li'-^  lll.ils  dc  la 
'lliui  iii^o.  la  liraiiolio  I'.nio-^tino  dc  Sa\o.  Soiiw  ar/!  h  mr^  rt  l<oii>s. 
.\pros  do  li>n'_;no>  lu'-itali' ii;>.  Uado  >o  doolara  puni'  lo  /olK  i.  roiii 
lo  IJ  liiii  l'^^.^^;  \a->'-au.  lo  to  di  ooiuIhi"  I '^,0  ;  1' raiiol')rt-s'ii-lo- 
Moiii.  lo  jq  jaii\  i<T  iNV'^  '•'  I'liiwipaiito  do  I  .ippo-1  )i  tim  ild.  lo  1  S 
o.tfl'i'i.' ;  lo  111  ini-w  iok.  lo  ii)  (totnlno;  la  I  Io---i -1  dotlnalc  v\  lo 
conilo  do  Sohaiiiiil  H  iiir^-.  K'  1^  ikix  oinl 'lo  ;  lo  mmto  dc  WaldooK. 
li-  II  di'ooniKio  i-|i  ;  lo  du^  ho  do  I  aiM-inl '<>iir^.  lo  S  lox  1  ior 
l.S.j^i  ;  o'.ilin.  lo  1"  iaa\ior  1  .S^  | .  lo^  diauii  1 -^  Ill.it.s  lostrs  iidoli's  ;i 
Pass  loiai  ii  111  dii  .S('//( /■;•( /t///.  o'o>t-a-diio  lo  llaiioNi'o  ol  lo  dliolio 
d'(  )ldoiii  hiiiil;'. 

D'apits  lo  roooMSLaiiont  dc  dooomlu'o  l.S()i,  hi  p<  ipiilatiuii  di- 
oliaijiu-  IJat  as-Diio  N"oK\ait  aii\  iiDinluos  oi-apri's  :  — 

I'liis^i' iS.Si-.Kii        lliM"\ri' l,i«r<,'Hi        I'.fiiM'-w  ilk      :","^i 

l.ux.  iiili'MirL'     .    .    .         In;-.;  ,1        \\  uMi  iiiii  ■iiiy"     .    .  1 .7Jn.7  pS       (  (jdt  iili.  lury .'i>,5'ij 

li.^iiTr ^.".i;.|ji       !>  111.' i,;m;.7;-'       \  i>'-.ui |;(,i.'ii 

S  1  vr  i-'IVmIi'   ....     .•..•j;.j||        I  !•  -~i--(. '  1--1I    .    .     .      -\<t,ttSi       |-'r,i'u  I' irt ^I-S"'' 

'ruiiiii;4( i,(-H,,>ji       ll(> -I  ■D.iniisi.uli  .      sji.jji  

■'■"(•il  ■ .5l>"7"'-77 

C'o^  tI  'i  iiiil!iiin>  d'lialiilaiils  (looiipoiit  imo  Mi|HTikio  do  ^oj.j'm) 
UilmiHti OS  oaii ^■■^. 

Lo  /i>li\oioiii  ii'o-^t  ])a.s  ro.sto  oominotoialomoiit  iM)lo.  Dos  ha 
tdrm.itinii.  il  s"i -1  olloii'o  ira'^raiidir  >o>  dol luiiolio^  |)ar  di's  liailc.s 
a\oo  lo>.  piiiuipaiix   l-^t.it^  dv  raiuii.'n  ot  dii  iiouxo.m  iiMndo. 

C\s  tiaili's  do  oiiniiiuioo  so  s'liil  siiooodo  dans  ri.idro  ol-apros  : 
a\io  la  lli)||.iii(U'.  los  _*  I  jaii\it-r  i '"^  V'  •-''  ,i '  di'oi  iiilni.'  iN:^i  ;  avi'O 
1.1  I'miIo.  lo  \i)/Z2  ooliiliro  lN|();  ;i\oo  IWu^loloiro,  los  j  iiiais 
1^1  I  ot  II  u<i\  oiiil  111-  lSq~;  a\c\'  Li  I5o1l;I<PIo.  los  l"  sopltanliio 
i>|j.  J  iaiixior  iS:;i  ot  i  S  lo\  i  lor  iS;;j;  a\oo  la  Sardai;4iio,  los 
z\  juiii  i.^(S-  -<»  iiiai  i.S:;i  ot  jS  oot' ili' o  I S^c)  ;  a\io  IWnlriolic,  ie 
I')  lo\  nor  I'^^^i  (d'ali  iitl  a\i'o  la  I'ni-^so  si-iiloiiu  iit.  puis  a\oo  lo 
/idKouiii  il  |)his  lardi'.a\i's  ios  diulios  do  I'aiinoit  ilo  Modiiu')  ; 
a\fO  II-  Mo\i(|iio,  K'  _^()  jiiilKt  iS^S;  a\oo  liroiiu-.  lo  _•(>  jamioi 
iS^d;   ;i\o»:  la  Sicilo.  lo  m  aoui    iS^i);  a\oc   Ic   Daiioiuark,   lo    i\ 


T.i;  /<ti  i.\  r.ki:i\. 


iSS 


mars    l.S>y';    :i\i't."    rAutriilir    ct    l;i    priiicip.iiiK'    ilr    I.itiilriislrin 
{  Ci)ll\  t'lltiuli  11)1 '!n.t;iin.' ) ,   Ic  Jj   j.iiiN  irr   iS:;- 


i\  ti.'    1,1    1  n  --r 


jiiiii    iS^j  ;     ;i\(.c    la    (.:()iirL'(k''ialii>ii    ^\rmiuiur,     k-     ly    Mplciiihrc 


iS.- 


-■^z 


inlliu'iut'  (!(.•   c<.-s    Iraiu's  ^ur 


ir   i'(  >iiiiiu!\-i'   (III 


z. 


I\  I  Trin    I'st 


i'Iair(.'iiuiil  null,  iiiii.-  par  Ic  taliUaii    .Mii\anl.   iiui    i:i  lail  lonn.ntro 


i.Sm  a  IS' 


(I  naiiilanl 


a    \alriir  iHii\i'iiiU'   ainiiifllr   ariMiini.'   d    ] 


I    par   Icti 


HI!    la  pi'-riixK'  iS  '  I  -  I  S  ; 


)a 


1  M.  ().  11 

il 


111  lilr 


r  (  yali rhiK  I'l    p'  mi'    i  Sii 


\W  \  airiir  a 
rt     iSi.i  '  ). 


I'U-   C.f 


Icilli 


apii  >  (k'S 


pii\   iii\  ai  I  iitlrs  ;    pmir   u-s   :iiil;\'s   aiiiiro,   il  .ipUN   k>    pii\  reels. 


>L•^  somiiii-s  SI  'lit  en  iiiiiIh  >hs 


(le  11  aiu  s. 


I'll  iinlfs 
it  amu  i>. 


1S5, 


1.1^  t-i 
'..U7  5 


S'H.ii 


"W 


I,i-!|l 


■il.' 


I  - ,  -.^ 


5li 


1.1"^, 


-■••ai-i 


Ivt 


l>-.i 


■'i.g 


"ri  K 


!! 


'>ij 


1:} 


It 


I)' 


ipres   i 


r   taliliaii. 


Ill 


anile   cnniiiu  reiale  du    X'llKireiu  a  eu 


iKiis   phases   ti  is-(|i--l  iiiites.      |  ,;i    pieuiu  re   eompreuii    la     pernKJc 


|S' i_|S|( 


>  ;    *.  i  s 


t    peut-eiie    la    pliis    l>nila!U< 


I     si.HiiiiUe    i-m- 


>iasse  les  ailliees  ile  il  ise    I . 


a   iS^-'. 


all'  ii-ieiiie  e.  aiimeiK'ei' 


11     |S:'      se    (.ontliiiie    en    ee     in''iiunt  ;      i^^^T    en 


.''.1 


P'lint 


eulininaiil. 


1'.  Ill     I'lisuili      line     u\K'ti''ii    as>e/     Miisiiik.    (iiii, 


(|iit)i(pie    •peidaiit    eliaijiie    i<Mir   de    snii    inUiisite.    ii'a    p.is    iMienrc 


1ai(     plate    a     iiiie     reei  mle'-eeiK  e    liieii    earai  lei  isei- 


Les    ,1 


eliN 


e<  ilniiiies.  i  III  f^<trt'tt  ;(>iis  el  <  \  ['nrlitt  imis^  iiiiliipu  :il  la  e"in'lalii>n 
inliiiu'  pii  e\i>le  Innjniirs  el  liartniil  eiilie  ees  ('tii\  I'K  iiuiils 
«lu  euinraeiee.      I  iiterleiiies    peiidaiit  asse/  li.ii'^kiiips   aii\    iMeiiii- 


t'l'es. 


seeoiKie 


lie    tardeiil    pas   a 


e''aK'r  il    nu  nie   a    Ks 


depasser    dans    eeitaiiu's     aiiiiees. 


C'est      1. 


)reii\e    du     iMpiiL" 


( )ii  ••iiit  i|iii-  Il -.  ill'. its  (II-  (l.tiaiir  ilii  /"llviTtin  •;iiiil  1  l:ilili'~  .111  p^lils.     I.ir-  |iiiliIiiMlii>iis 


otliiicUi'S  lie  lout  (loll 


(  pas  0"! 


iiii.iitrc  la  Viiltur  du  L'(>uiiiii.'ii.i'  ilc  I'asMiLiati.iii, 


156 


SKI. Kt -I  IONS. 


;; 


p  rl 


(K''\  iliippriin'iit  iM:muf.utiirii.T  dc  I'Mssocintioii.  I'.ir  sniti-  iK' 
rrxUiisiMii  m-.-idiiclk'  di'  soil  Iv'simh  di-  xoit's  iiTiri"',  dr  r;iiiu''li- 
oi.iliDii  di'  srs  \iiii-s  n;i\  iLj;il)li.'s  ct  dc  l;i  ii'-diiLtioii  di's  dioits  ik- 
t^;lll^it  (Miijoiird'luii  siippt  iim'"^) .  son  tiirilDiir  i.st.  I'li  diitii-.  cm- 
priinti''  ]);ir  imr  \;diiii  (c;iK"ulri' )  sniis  iissr  ri' lissantr  dr  in;ir- 
cliaiidisrs.  W'  pirdnns  p;is  Av  \iu-  tontrtois  (pic  l;i  NnlfUf. 
siirtoiit  l;i  N.di'iir  (/(■///(■//(■,  lie  s.miait  ddiiiuf.  p.irt  i^  idirrriiH'iit 
dans  i.rs  dcinirii's  aiiniTs  oi'i  k's  pii\  ont  I'tr  rolijit  d'nnr  liaiissc 
si  sond.iint.'  ct  si  rapiiK',  la  nu'snrc  c-vaiir  Aw  nionv  rniciit  drs 
t'chanLji's  tt  du  tiaiisil  dii  ZolK  iicin.  I  .'indii.'alii)ii  de-^  ipianlitrs 
stTail  mi  d.iinnu'Ml  pins  |)ivi.is  ;  niais  illc  i'\i^L'iait  dts  di\  doppi-- 
uic'iit^  <pii  ni'  saniaicnt  tionvcT  phuc  ici. 

Ia'  taliKau  li-apiis  tail  i-nnnaitit.'  la  \aKnr  (Kn  piodnits 
falirii  jnr>  ipu'  K-  /()11\  iiiiu  a  inipuitrs  (.t  c\  pork's  t-n  I'^^^l-  ''^li- 
ft iS;^.  II  n'a  iTantic-  !  iit  ipn'  d'in<!i(pu'f  ltiix  (k-  ii^  prodnils 
(pii  sonl  k'  |ilns  haoitmlknu-nt  consoinnus  on  ialiri(|n(.''s  dans 
lis  l.tat--  i\v  ri  iiiou.  k's  (piautiti's  a\ant  dn  nrct'ssaiic- 
incnt  s'lkxiT  a\ic  k-  (.'liiirri'  dt.'  la  popniation.  C\prndant  il 
tournil  cr  riiisi-i'.MunuMit  impoitnit  ft  indrprndant  dn  nion\r- 
mrnt  dr  la  |)<  >pidation.  qwc.  tandi--  (|iic  k's  inipoi  tat  ions  ni'  sc 
sont  aii.inrs.  dr  iS^j  a  iN^y.  (picdr  V  !'•  '<"'•  '^"^  t'\porlations 
ont  phis  (pii-  dmilik'.  Ci'st.  (.■onnni"  nons  k-  di>ons  phis  liant.  \v 
.si^iK'  cntain  dis  pio^ivs  ri'n)ai(|nalik's  dc  lindnsUii'  mannlac- 
Uiricrc  dans    rassociatioii. 


i.r;  /niiA  i:ki:i\. 


I  \Ili>t<  1  \  I  IONS, 


Di- >i<.N.\  1 1'lS  HI- 


liXI'iiK  I  \  1  luNS. 


ih:ii     ihii.    isri?.    lH:tl.    isii.    ih57. 


i>'  til 


r..ii. 

Si'Hiiis  |iini'-  .  .  . 
^"ii'i  ii  -  iiU'Liiiui  cs 
l,;iin.i-r- 


'urnins  ft 


;IUl. 


Il.ibit>  (r.nr.iM- 
Ol'iii-  111  t'lr     . 


( )l>j<  I-'  i-ii  ciiu  re  ft  Iwit' 
Olijfl^  (11  |iliiiiil>  .  .  . 
( )lijits  cri  /iiM       .... 

(  (lljcl-    I  II   I  l.iiii      .     .     .     . 

(liiitic.'lilli  I  it' 

Ohjii^  vii  pitrrc,  iii.iriM 


<■  <  i  .iiiin-.'-  iiiiri- 


\':ii---<  He  It  I 


mrctlaiiu- 


iiTf  il  \  I'lriTH' 


Olijils  I'll  liiiis 

()l)jil<  I'll  <  iiir 

Hni-.sci'ic  (I  luii^-ii  lli'i'ii'  . 
(  Hijcls  in  p.iilli',  I'll  I'l  OK  f, 


:l( 


I';i|)ii 


pH'i's,  inix    ilf   ''.iiti^,  piijiur  (ic  ti  11 


tine,   i':irtiMi> 


I'nxliiil-'  I  liiiiiii|i>< 
I'iiiltliT  ;i  lilt  1-  .    . 


SS.i 


I-   ( 


Saviiiis 


Itn 


It  ell 


Il( 


I'':iriii(  s  ft  iirniliiii  -  liitiiii'iix 
Sticri-  riilliiu- 


■r;il>;i. 


iiidf  •\  If 


I.ivifs      ,    . 
liistniitifiils 


\':ilf ur  |iit;iU 


i.V 


'il   :; 


•I  '> 


I'M'" 


.V'.| 


-1'^ 


iii.tj 


<'■<:>. 


(.« 


.,(.J 


,M 


.\i>-' 


¥'-S 


.5-" 


15 't 


>>•> 

!.(> 


(..; 


0.7 


5-7 


'«)S.< 


IMt 

I  111 


T, 


:i    si^iKittiiv  ivcfiitf  (11111  tr;iiti'  df   tumiiic'iic  ct    tlr  ii;i\  i'_;;it!(in 


cntic  l;i  r  laiKX'  (. 


amcii    (k's   ;iii 


(    l;i   I'l 


tiv>,i\  tiailr  (11    i\'   niKiiU'iit  SMumis   a    1  (.'x- 


liTs  Ijats  (Ir  ra^sociat  ii  ill.  (luiinr  iiii  iiitriit    |Kiitii.ii- 
li(.T  ail  talilraii  ci-apii'^.  irlatit    a    ims  rilaliiin-^  i.(iiiiiiiri  liaK  s  a\cc 


/ 


oin  (.'Uiii. 


a  rtc  dii'SM'   (1  anil' 


'innciits    I'laiuais    ct 


iii(Ii(|iK'  K's  \alfiiis   ai'liiilk'S  (rii    inilliMii>  do   tiaiK^).      II    se  lap- 
])()rk'   au  v^-oiliiiKiLC  special. 


I 


M' 


1 
fit'  I 


Ml 


m8 


.si;i.i;(ri(».\s. 


I.i's  im|i()i  t.iiii)ii>  (ill  Z(ill\crriii  en  I'r.iiu-c  poitrni  piincipiiK'- 
iiiriit  sill"  (Us  iiKitirirs  piimiiiis  di'  ^ill(lii^tl■i'.■  (hiiiR'N.  lust  i;iii\. 
lioiiilK',  cokr.  Iiiii>,  pt:m\  l>riilrs.  poils).  Ia'S  S(  )i(.'ii('s  I'l  Ii'S 
IniiKi^cs  \   tlLiiiii'iil  Cfpi'iiihiut  |)i)iii   till  iliillii.'  as.stv.  i''K'\r. 

I  .cs  (.'Npo!  t.ilioiis  di-  I;i  I'laiui-  puiir  \c  Zollvcri'iii  out,  ;iii  idii- 
traiir.  piiiir  olijcls  |)riiii.ip:ni\  dis  pKidiiits  li';il)ri(|ik's,  comiDL'  lis 
sdicrirs.  lis  l;iiii;i'_;(.s.  lis  \  ili'iiiriits  ft  liii^rrirs.  Irs  I'l  .ti  niiiadcs  im- 
piinii  Ts  ;  Ks  p(;iii\  (>ii\  it'is.  1(  s  Ills  dc  hiiiu',  Irs  (nitils  it  iiistni- 
iiu'iils.  itv.".  La  I'r.iiKH-  rxprdit.'  I'li  oiiti'i'  dans  di-  ZolU  cirin , 
tiuaiid  hi  ivi'ollo  I'st  lioiiiic.  drs  (iiiantilc's  assc/.  coiisidOi  ahlrs  du 
vins  ordinaiii's. 

S'd  lallail  inm'f.  d'apics  \v  inmu  (.'nuiit  (k'  la  iia\  i^ation  dans 
K's  |)(>rls  piiissirns.  i\v  I'inipi  ii  tami'  rrlatixr  dii  (.1  mnni  lie  dii 
Z«'ll\  ii'iin  a\ri--  Ks  dixtTs  I'.tats  t'lii'ipri  us,  rV'st  a\c'(.'  rAiiuK'tiTfi- 
(pi'il  I'litul  u  ndrait  \c  im  ai\  riiu'ii!  d"allair(.s  K-  phis  (.-onsiik'i  ahlc. 
\  ii  ndraii'nl  laisiiitr.  par  urdif  drcioissaiil  (\v  trails,  h's  liois  i'(t- 
\aiinus  si.:mdina\  c's.  la  Ilnllaiuk'.  hs  puitis  ansrati(pic's.  hi 
I'laiiii',  la  Riissii'.  iii,-.  Mais  il  lU'  laiit  pas  pri'dir  dc  \  iic  iiu'cii 
CL'  (|ui  (.<  HKii  IK-  la  l"ran(.'i'.  la  phis  i^raiuk'  i)ariii.'  dc  .son  coinnuMcc 
a\ii'  k'  ZiilK  (.Tiaii  St.-  jail  par  la  xnic  {\v  tiaic. 

l.cs  rcccttis  (ks  doiiancs  du  ZolU  (.Tcin  (nit  osrilk''  aiiisi  ipi'il 
suit   (k-    iS^i    a  iSq()   (iioinlncs   en    niillinns   tk'   iVaiKs). 


Am 


Im|"'ii.i- 
liiiii. 


i;\l'orl:i- 
lioii. 


rillii>il. 


.\iiiii. 


Iin|i<  'I'l.i' 
lion.       , 


.\|ii'il,i 
lion. 


ri;iii.-it. 


i<.;i  .... 

sJ.I 

'■5 

1  .<  / 

1^17  .  .  . 

.    .       inii.t; 

.\-" 

■•s 

js^:;  .... 

^o." 

i.ij 

i.ii 

|S,S   .      .      . 

^>-S 

*  '.'> 

1.1 

1^  V 

(.;;.() 

1 .11 

I'l 

I^V)  ■    ■    . 

S'^i.i; 

*  '.S 

1.0 

iS7-   •   •   • 

«>.■- 

■•5 

J.J 

is;:.   .      .      . 

Si. J 

1.1 

1.9 

l^iS.    .    .    . 

7-!-l 

1.0 

I.I) 

is;i    .     .     . 

.          S7.,, 

I.I 

"•5 

IS;.,  .    .    .    . 

7.V') 

HI 

j.'i 

iS^J   .     .     . 

.  ;      III. I 

I.I 

'•.> 

I>'|0.     .     .     . 

7.... J 

1.1) 

.'.'1 

is;?  .     .     . 

.  1      S..5 

I.I          ; 

i.<i 

IS.,1  .... 

Sii.J 

>S 

J..' 

1S5,  .  .  . 

.  1        So. 2 

0.7 

1-5 

.V,j.    .    .    . 

^5-5 

'  •'i 

->  J 

is;;  .    .    . 

•  1       97  S 

0.7 

_*.  J 

IS, 5.     . 

ilJ.O 

'•S 

.'.-. 

is;(i  .    .    . 

i|S.(> 

0.7 

lv> 

I><l( .  .  .  . 

Dfi.l) 

I. (I 

-•.o 

is;;  .    .    . 

.  '        <:<;.0 

.  "  / 

1-5 

IS);;  .... 

III!.') 

'•5 

'  > 

i-<;s  .    .    , 

l(V>.  1 

0.7 

i-S 

IS|()  .... 

'"•S 

i-<i 

I.I 

i\W  ■   .  . 

SS.I 

-•7       , 

'•S 

Ia's  tai'nk's  ()s..illatiiins  du  piddiiit  (k's  dduanrs  dt'pnis  iS)  ) 
C(instiUu'nl  k-  trait  sailhint  dc-  ce  t.ihkan.  'I'outi'ii  lis.  ei-t  ctat  a 
])ru  pirs  stalioiniaiie  (ks  iwettrs  iic  saiiiait  clic  i!iti'ipivl(.' .  en 
presence  des  ddcunu'iits  tpii  pivi  edeiil .  Cdinnii'  le  siL^nc  d'nn 
nuaucuunt  d'all'aiii's  pin  |)r()'4tessir.  11  nc  laut  pas  pcrdic  dc 
^llc.  d'ailkiiis.  (pic  les  plus  t;raud  iidiuhrc  des  iiiatii^Tcs  prcniicrcs 


1,F,   /(HIAKUKIV. 


'59 


Ic   (raiiMl    mit    t'',ili'iiu'iit 


out  i'(r,  in  iS^i  c{   tU'piii^,  on   compli'-trinciit  atl'i ;iiuliiis  ois   i.(in- 
si(li''r;ililriiuiit    (Ir'^nx  c'l's.       \.v^  druit.' 

supi 


'jrt    (riiupoi  taiitrs    it'ihutioii^    jiiMiu'au    inoiiuii 


t    (Ic    1 


ciir 


)rr-~^inii    t'li   iNhr, 


I'ji    I  S^S  I'l    lS:;().    Ii-s    ici'itt 


a    l'liii|)iii(atli)n   (  sriiltiinnl  ) .    la- 
im  lu'i-  a   i(,(). ()<!().  sr  soiit  ii'jjailii  >  aiiisi  i(iril  Miit  I'litir   li-s  Ijal- 


t|ui  pi  I'trdiiit   (  I'raiK  riiit-siii' 


-k-.M 


rill  iioii  (.'iiin 


pri->)  :  ~ 


lt;ix  ii  IV 
1 1  ;ll1ovl( 
S.ixr  .     . 


U  int. 


I  litiviniii' 

1  IcM-   I  l_ir;|llil  cllil'Ili 

Ilissc  '  |';l.  ilor.ili) 
( >lilcMil>'iiiru'    .    .    .    . 


I! 


U 


l.\ixi  iiiluimL 


IH5S. 


5c  i.ciin 
I  ;,iSS 


2,  l<>f» 


l,J|J 


St9 


IS.-iO. 


S4,oar 

5.i)S<) 

I  •7.^"^ 
J. 1(1 


5t- 


T«u 


\'<iiri   (|iu'lli'   a   viv    la    ii'parlil  luii   dc    la   vrcrtlr    lutlc   iiilii-   K's 
(li\(.'r>  I'Uats,  lie  IS^J  a  iS^<)  (\aKiir.s  imi  milliuns  ilc  tVaiics)  :  — 


1)1 


H.ivii  ri- 


iIhi- 


Wur 

I,!. hi. 

l'.l;it-  (ii-    Tliuriiim'  .    . 

I  lissf  v(ii:iinl  Diulic) 

llcs-r  (Kkctmalf)      . 

()l(l.iil..nn-;^ 

\:l<-  111 

I- 


1  ;lln  l'>it->ur- 
Sruii-'W  irk      . 


..M.  ii 


l..i\ 


iriiDniiri 


Toti: 


i5.,vv'.-'-;i 

1  I  .Hi;—"'*' 

).-7.i'i55 

-'."57'"''5 
^.'l7-\5 
I,Si5,V(.5 
1 , 1 ;  1 ,1 « « 1 


ri7.i^^ 


•iM.^-i.i 


:\\'.\"j 


|S;S. 


.^llv^'•^,(lli 


g,7'  I, 


.5,<17".27S 
J,57'>>^i 


I. 


';s 


T^i.r-' 


"7>'-l.i^l'l"-i 


.Vl.77''•^l'' 


^n      i 


S."7<>'V>"< 


"^•-17 


Ki.lS 

5  •"7 


1..M 
I .  .'.> 


La    cdIiiiimc    (k's   ia])[)i)its   i-i'iitL'siiiiaux   (K's  (Umix  taMraii\    tpii 
prt'ccikul,  appcllc  tout  pailiciilicrcmciil   rallculiDii   (.a   iu(li<[uaiil 


#1 


iTjo 


SKI.I-.CIIONS. 


Ics  I',t:its  (|iii  Lr.'i'_(iu'nt  on  pt  rdciit  ."i  rnssni-i.ition,  Aiii^I.  pni'  cx- 
iMipK'.  1,1  rriis^f.  i|iil  riKMi^M'  v'^-'^-  |>  '•'"  'l*-"^  ri'c'i'tU'^  tdtalfs. 
Ill-  llmiir  i|iic  i)iMir  50  7J  il;ins  l;i  irpiiil  it  ii  >n .  tandis  inu'.  pour  la 
IJju  ii'K'.  (.IS  rapports  sotit  rcspL'Ctivcim'iil  tic  vis,  ;i  \v  ucitti-  ct  tU- 
IJ.^^I  a  la  irpartitioM.  Kn  rr^imu'',  k-s  ICtats  <^aL;naiits  soiil  Irs 
suiv.ints;  Uax  irit.-.  Ilaiiovn-.  Win  trmhiTi^.  K's  (Kii\  I  Iisms.  la 
i'liiii  iii'4t'.  (  )|(U'iiliour;4  ct  Nassau.  La  I'russr.  Ir  Luxrnilioin^', 
la  Savi'.  Iladr.  I  JiiiiisW  ii.  k  ct  i'raiu  lort-sur-lc-Mciu  coniposfiit  la 
si'iii'  (k's  pcrdaut-'.  I.cs  parts  du  Zoll\  iTciii  sout  ccu\  dc  la 
riiisM.du  diiclic  (!'( )l(lcnl)out'4-  ct  du  lIano\rc.  Lcs  docuuuuts 
(|ui  SIMM  lit  iudi(iuciit  Ic  mou\cincu(  dc  la  uaNi^aliou  dc  ics  ports 
dc  1S5O  a  i^Sy  (j^raud  cl  petit  cahotaLjc  iioii  coni[)iis). 


(I  .        ,  111 


i'(U!is  i'i!rssii;\s. 


11  \  I  i\;i  Nr>. 


'I'llNN  !■  \i  \.' 


I!  A  II  MINIS 

■-I  K   1.1,  -  r.- 


TclNM    \1    \. 


A.NNKi.s.         ICiitrds.   Sortis.  ,      Entrus.  Snrtis.       lintrcs.     Scutis.    I".iitn>.    Sniii>. 


1850  .   .   . 

iSsS  .  .  . 
.S57  .  .  . 
I>^ 


0,116  9.1117  i,(7i,-;>j  i,)i(/mj 
i  S,i,2j  <».".>,J  i.t"i.;i»>  i,(ui,5Sj 
'     ^-vW        Nit'  i,;S|,i,_...  i.;o|,i^4 


2,fV.S  |,7H       |5J,'^(''       ,<ln,(5S 

2,51)1)  I      i,u\i)     i.;i.7s'<      i"i,"i4 
,VII52    I       I.J.M      51M.1S"      --il.l^- 


T-S*^-!        7."^4         ').V)7-7l"         'v^TM'"  I      '.Wl  I      ■*.>"     .i'^'^.^"     .<^"..>'" 


Dans  Ic  duclic  d"(  )lili.'nl)ouri^,  la  naxi^atiou  a  etc  cu  iN:^ij:  a 
rciitivi'.  dc  ()]:,  iia\  iics  charges,  jauncaiit  ^S.^jSj  lasts  (.i  Ac  i  1  suf 
lest.  jauL;cant  Sy^j  lasts;  a  la  soitic,  dc  :;  i  1  na\ii-cs  charges,  jaui;- 
cant   v^--V5  lasts  ct  tic  502  sur  lest  ;i\cc  3^,8^1   lasl.s. 


1859.  . 

1S5S.  . 


I,  ICnIre 
I  Snrlic 


{  ICnIro 
>  Sniiif 


I'OIiTS    II  \\()\l!li:\S. 


NAVll<h-<    (11  MU.fis. 


Noinlire. 

Lasts, 

i,i|i 

,V'.S" 

1,1'ij.' 

Ju,-'70 

,V""' 

1 1  -<".V 

i,iii.f 

,VM5'' 

\  \VII<h>    M    K    l.l.sr. 


Jl 

,'«!( 

,i- 

.Wll) 

Jl 

.S:;S 

nil 

,jSi 

Les  a\ant,iLjcs  jnncnicut  iiiatcricls  du  Zollvcrcin   pour  Ics  lltat> 

'  I,e  tonne, 111  dc  mir  pnissicn  :=  t/iSk.So, 
2  C"iiiii|iri>  ililiis  lc>  ti>l,iii.\  [ircciilLiils. 


;ui'. 


AM- 


i.i;  /mi  \  iRiiv. 


161 


in(i''i*t'»<src's  pi'iivi'iit  si'  R'stmuT  ain-i  <|ii'Il  ^iiil  :  1"  i\'(liKtiiiii  lU's 
tVais  (Ir  |)rii.r|)tit)H  ct  (radiiiiiiistral ioii.  par  siiitr  dc  la  Mi|)|)tr^>>ii>ii 
(li.'>  1  a  V I  Ills  ilr  (Iduaiu's  L'litri'  li.->  1  ]tat->  assin-iis  ;  j  '  rapiiK-  .lr\  rlop- 
priiiiiit  imliistiirl.  ]>ar  Miilf  di'  I'appl  iv  atli  m  d'nii  taiil  iiiMdiTi' ; 
^  i'K\  ati'iii  dii  (.hi  lilt.-  pi  i  111  it  if  dr-  in.  ilU-  i\c  dmiaiu'.  par  siiih'  do 
Taci.  Toissi'iiu'iit  Ar  ti  iiiM  iininal  i' 111  i\>iillaiit  Av  rappl'K'iti' hi  Ac  cc 
taril";     |'     lOiKliisicin    Ac    traiu>    Ac 


IDlllllU'l  cc 


i\  aiita''iiiN    a\i'C 


i''liaii''cr.  nliis   disposL-  a  laiiL'    Ac>  c<n\cc»\i>i\s  a   1111  r.tat  (ini    liii 


r: 


ollri-  nil  di'iioiulu-  (.'oiisidLTaMr  (|ii  a  d(.">  pavs  sans  iniportaiKU-  ;    s' 
u^a^c  ;4ratnit  mi  a  ilis  I'l  indili' his   {\\>  im  xlrircs  A<. 


'laiiilcs  vdhs 


is- 


Ac  (.■onmuinicat  n  111  trircstn's.  tln\  lali.'-  (Ui  iiiant  iiiu'-.  ipn  n  i\ 
taii'iil  anpara\aiil  ipi'aii  piulit  (Tnii  mi  Ac  1  pirli|nrs-nns  d'ciitri' 
iai\  ,  ()  rapidr  isvcf  Ac  <:cy\A\\\c->  iiidiistiirs  iiidim'iu's.  auMpirlIrs 
la  lihir  ()ii\  (.'ilurc  d'uii  marcliL'  iiiU'i  iiaii  dc  J,\  millions  d'hahilaiits," 
aiiisi  (|iH-  rusaj^c  c\)  iVaiKliisc  Ac  iiialii  res  prrmiiTi's  foiiiiiii's  |)ar 
I'lin  on  I'antiv  dcs  I'.lats  associi's  I't  antiilois  iiappri's  Ac  dioits  i\c 
doiiaiu'.  prrnu'ttiiit  Ac  pio(|inr(.'  phis  (.'•i.ononiii[uciiU'nt  :  'j'cvcA- 
tion  d'nnc  foitL'  niariiu'  marcliandr. 

L'insiitiitioii  du  /iill\  (.'rein   a   lai   drs  a\antam's  ciin\"s])oiidanfs 

All     lirii    d'a\oir    a    triMisL'i      p) 


ponr 


cmiiiiK  i\'c   f  I  fair 'XT 


lii;iK's  tli)ii:i..K!Vs.  drkiidnrs  |)ar  dcs  droits  phis  on  iiioins  coin- 
])li(pK''s,  phis  on  nioiiis  i'K\i.'s.  I't  appliipii's  |)ai'  drs  adiniiiis- 
t  rat  ions  phis  on  inoins  trai-'assirrcs.  i|  s'csi  tioiu  r  ni  f.u  r  d'nii  pax  s 
nni(piL'.  rccrxant  sis  piddnils  a  di's  conditiiiiis  1  rlaliv  I'liicnl  mod- 
ciVL's.  .\ii  lien  (FaMiir  a  Iraitcr  axei.'  dcs  coiisoiniiiati  ni  s  pni 
aisrs,  ristifi^nanl  Icnrs  drptiists  an  phis  strict  iiOccssaiic  il  a 
})r()lik''   (111   dc\  (.'loppcnRMit   Ac   la    liclussr   pnMiipic  dans   Ic   Zoll- 


vcrciii  (U'Vfiui.  apiis  (pichpics  aniicrs.  nil  i^ian.l    pa\s.  nonsca 


Ic- 


iiK'iit  par   Ic  tcriitoiii'   i't    la    popnialion.  niais  encore   par   le   l.'icn- 
etre  croissant  Ac  sa    population. 

Lc  /ol!\(.'rein  n'esl  ccpendant  pas.  dans  son  or";anis;ition  et  scs 
vesuhats  actnels.  la  t'ormiile  la  phis  coinplcti'.  la  phis  heiircnsc  dii 
priiicipe  de  I'associatioii  cominercialc.  Le  mode  compiitpie  de 
SOS  deliheiations  ;  -  la  dillicnltc.  ponr  srs  memhics.  d'ariivcr.  sur 
les  (piestioiis  les  phis  i;ra\  I's.  a  iiiu'  sohition  laxoiahle  aii\  intciels 
sou\ent  ties-opposes  (pi'ils  repieseiitciit  :  les  inlliiencis  politiipie.s 
(pii  s'a^itciit   dans   son  seiii   et   reiiipechi  iil   Ac   discerncr   lonjonrs 


D'.ip 


lc  (Il-iiiiiii1iii.mu  lit  lit-  lS<ii  iloiit  II".  rc-ull.il>  iillk  icU  iiou-.  :ii  i  Ucril  en  ci-  nifumiil, 


(If  ,VI'7ii5-'\it  li.il'il^iiits. 

-Oil  s:iil  (|iic  liiuli'S  li's  ill  lilu  r.itio/is  ilii  Zullvriiin,  pmir  i"lrr  val.iMrs,  iI'Mviiit  I'Irf 
|)iisi's  ;i  ruii.iiiiiiiili.'.  .\ill^i,  (I. Ills  CIS  <li.-lil>i  iMtiiriis,  1.1  l'iii>.^e  iif  |>i.si'  \)A>  il'iiii  |)Ui-  j^i^iiici 
(mills  iiiii.'  I"  riinLlmt-surk-  Mciii  iivfc  scs  so.ixxj  liabitauls!   .  ,  . 


Illr 


I 


jh 


k 


\Ck 


si;i.r.cii(»\s. 


tl;iii  (.'iiunt  l;i  xoii-  ;'i  Miivrc  ])i>iif  tiriT  di'  riminii  ll•^  r('"^ult:iN 
ri  <Mii  iini(|iics  li's  pills  I'Diisidri  al'Irs.  trlUs  son!  Us  jii^li's  cril  i(|ii(s 
(I'liil  il  A  sMii\iiit  t'tr  I'nlijrt.  (  )i)  prill  I'luorc  liii  rrpinvlur  dr 
m.'iintinil'.  iii;il'4ir  I'cxriiipli'  Av  I'Aii^U'ti'l  ii-  rt  df  I;i  I'liiiuc.  dcs 
droits  (|iii.  piiiir  i-i'rt:iiii>  pi luliiits  lal>rii|ik's,  (K'^pass'iil  tit's. si'iisi- 
l>Kiiu'nt.    |)ar    K'    tail    iK'    la    diininutidii    (.inisiiK  raMc.    drpuis    la 


toi'iiialiiiii    (III 


Z 


1 1||\  I'irili.    dll     pli\     dfs      pKiiliiils      L^ICVi's.     (.rtti- 


iilovcmic  dr  lo  p.  loo  ^W  la  xakiir.  di'-tiiur.  ilapirs  K'  pici- 
^niiiimr  di-  rass(  !ci  iti'>ii.  a  sun  drluit  a  di.\  laiii  la  I  M-^f  di'  si  m  taril', 
CV'ttr  pi'i  ititt  idii  i-\;i<^i.'Tri' t'-t    iiiu'  donliK'  lautf.  d'al).ird  |)ai\i'  i|ii(.' 


cs    cniisoiiiiiiati'iirs    di'    1  a'-sin'iatin'i.    mniiis    ai^t's    (|ik'   iai;\    dis 


<lrli\  pa\s  (pic  liuii>-  \ril()lis  dc  (.ilrr.  sunt  iiioiiis  I'll  rial  dc  pa\rr 
(Ics  pii\  t'lc'Vi'S  :  puis.  paiiT  i|i:i.'  If  ZoJU  crriii.  ])ar  Irs  pci  Irc- 
tiomu'iiu'iits  iiitiodiiits  dans   sis   nrmi'd 


I's  (If  laiuic  il  mn   c 


pn\  di'  la  inaiii-d'd'iu  II'.  est    ani'Mird'hiil  I'Hit    a  tail  en  ii'rsmc'  d 
hitter  i'ilica(.'cniL'iil  coiitri'  la  i.  (mk  iii  ii'iut  (.''traii'ivro.      iSoj. 


ilij, 


hi;'  ! 


THK   C(>K\    LAWS. 


I^>3 


IX. 


Tlir   CORN    LAWS. 
Fk(»*.:  Levi's  History  ok   Hritisii  Commi-.rck,  j»  Ed. 

I'AKT    MI.  — C'llAI'.  S. 

TnK  corn  laws  had  lotij;  been  a  bone  of  coiifentioii  in  Kiv^Iaiul. 
Maintained  for  the  interest  of  a  class  who  clnnj^  to  them  as  tlieir 
anchor  of  safety,  they  had  always  been  attacked  as  an  obstacle  to 
the  well-beinj^  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  In  the  opinion  of 
their  advocates,  protection  was  necessary  in  order  to  keep  certain 
poor  lands  in  cnltivation,  and  to  enconraj^c  the  cultivation  of  as 
rnicli  land  as  possible  in  order  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  the 
country.  Let  the  cidtivation  of  such  lands  cease,  thev  said,  and 
we  shall  be  dependent  on  foreigners  for  a  lar<;e  portion  of  tiie 
people's  food.  Such  dependence,  moreover,  may  be  frau;^dit  with 
immense  danger,  inasmuch  as,  in  the  event  of  war,  the  supplies 
may  be  stopped  or  our  ports  may  be  blockaded,  the  result  of 
which  may  be  famine,  disease,  or  civil  war.  According  to  the 
defenders  of  protection  it  was  the  advantage  gained  by  tlic  corn 
laws  that  enabled  landed  proprietors  and  their  tenants  to  en- 
courage manufactures  and  trade.  Abolish  the  corn  laws  and 
half  the  country  shopkeepers  will  be  ruined,  mills  and  tactories 
will  be  stopped,  large  numbers  of  the  working-classes  will  be 
thrown  out  of  work,  disturbances  will  ensue,  capital  will  i)c  with- 
drawn, and  no  one  dare  venture  to  say  w  hat  may  be  the  fatal  con- 
sequences. 

In  iSoi  the  price  of  wheat  reached  the  high  limit  of  155s. 
a  quarter,  and  we  may  well  imagine  what  sutVerings  that  price 
entailed  among  the  people,  at  a  time  especially  when  trade  and 
manufacture  were  so  much  paralysed  by  the  Continental  war. 
Happily,  for  two  or  three  years  afterwards,  a  succession  of  good 
harvests  changed  the  condition  of  things,  and  in  March,  1S04,  the 
price  of  wheat  fell  to  49s.  6d.  per  imperial  quarter.  But 
what  was  anxiously  desired  by  the  people  was  regarded  a 
great  disaster  by  the  agricultural  interest.  They  complained  that 
with  the  high  cost  of  production,  in  consequence  of  high  v»^ages. 


i  !■ 


I      IK 

li     UK 


;tia 


1 64 


SKI-ECTION'S. 


ii  . 


■<; 


fii'i 


k 


h'v^h  rate  of  interest,  and  the  heavy  cost  of  itnploments  of  hus* 
l)aM(hy,  thev  could  not  atl'ord  to  sill  at  such  priii's.  Mcitin^s 
were  held  throiijfhoiit  the  coinitiy  to  consider  tiie  case  of  the 
farmers.  Mr.  Western  l)roii;ilit  the  state  of  ajrriinhnre  heforc 
the  House  of  Comnions,  and  a  committee  was  appointed  on 
the  suhiect.  The  farmers  contended  that  at  a  time  when  all 
foreij^n  supplies  were  shutout  from  our  markets,  and  \\  lien  we 
were  more  tlian  ever  (lependinjf  on  home  production,  it  was  the 
bounden  iluty  of  the  le<(islature  to  pass  laws  which  would  encour- 
aj;e  the  production  of  j^rain  at  home,  so  that  the  nation  mij,d)t  he 
as  nuich  as  possible  independent  as  rcjj^ards  the  first  necessaries  of 
life.  Unfortunately  all  the  measures  hitherto  talven  for  the  protec- 
tion of  tlie  farmers  resulted  only  in  the  a<;<^ravation  of  the  sullerinf^s 
of  the  people.  It  was  easy  by  means  <A'  prohibitions  and  bounties 
to  raise  the  price  of  corn  and  to  j^ive  an  artificial  stimulus  to  a;^ri- 
cultmal  prosperity,  but  the  pct)ple  were  not  able  to  buy  bread  at 
famine  prices,  especially  at  a  time  when  taxes  were  so  heavy.  The 
report  of  the  committee  oftiie  House  of  Conimons,  presented  the 
same  session  in  1804,  was  to  tiie  etVect  that  the  price  <trcorn  from 
1791  to  the  liarvest  of  i<So'^  had  been  very  irrej^ular.  hut  that  upon 
an  averaf^e  it  had  increased  in  a  great  degree  in  conseciuence  of 
the  years  of  scarcity,  and  had  in  general  yielded  a  fair  profit  to 
the  grower.  It  appeared  to  the  committee,  moreover,  that  high 
prices  had  the  eflect  of  stimulating  agricultural  industry  in  bring- 
ing into  cultivation  large  tracts  of  waste  lands,  and  that  tliis  fact 
combined  with  the  abundance  of  the  two  last  productive  seasons, 
ami  other  causes,  occasioned  such  a  depression  in  the  value  of 
grain  as  would  tend  to  the  discomagement  of  agriculture,  uidess 
maintained  by  the  support  of  Parliament.  Nor  was  there  much 
difliculty  in  persuading  the  legislature  to  give  heed  to  such 
recommendations.  Very  soon  after  the  presentation  of  the 
report  a  corn  law  was  passed,'  which  imposed  a  duty  of  24s.  3d. 
per  (piartcr  on  wheat  so  long  as  the  jirice  of  the  home  market 
should  be  under  63s.  ;  of  2s.  6d,  so  long  as  the  price  shcndd  be 
at  or  above  that  rate,  and  under  66s.  ;  and  of  6d.  a  (piarter  when 
the  price  should  be  above  that  rate.  It  does  not  appear,  how- 
ever, that  the  fear  entertaineil  bv  the  farmers  and  the  ajrricultural 
interest  had  been  very  substantial,  for  in  the  same  year  the  harvest 
was  deficient  in  quantity  and  inferior  in  quality,  and  all  appre- 


1  44  Geo.  III.  c.  109. 


1 


TIIK   CORN    LAWS. 


16: 


ot 
to 


fact 


ilcss 

uich 

such 

tlie 


rket 
ll  be 
•hen 
liow- 
lural 
•vest 
Iprc- 


litMisiotis  that  hiead  iiiiji[ht  hccomc  too  cheap  were  entirely  out  of 
tlic  i|iic'stioii.  A  proposal,  iiuk-i-d,  was  made  t<>  eiicoura^'c  tlie 
}j;i()\vlli  «it'  corn  in  Great  l$iitaiii,  and  yet  to  (hnunisli  the  price 
thereof  tor  the  hcneflt  of  the  people  hv  excniptinj;  farnicrs  from 
all  direct  taxes.  Ihit  such  a  plan  would  have  oidy  transferred 
the  burden  from  one  class  to  another.  The  time  hail  not  yet 
arriveil  for  actinj^  on  the  •*  laisscz-fairc  "  principle.  Artificial  aiil 
was  sought  for  on  all  sides,  and  that  always  ended  in  disa|)poii)t< 
nient. 


At  the  conclusion  of  the  Frencli  war,   in    iSi 


P 


recise 


ly  tl 


ie 


same  state  of  matters  arose  as  in  1804.  My  the  openinj;  of  the 
ports,  wheat  which  hitherto  averajfed  5I.  los.  a  ([uarter  suddenly 
tell  to  3I.  5s.,  ami  immediately  the  farmers  raised  a  cry  of  dis- 
tress. A^ain  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Conunons  was  ap- 
pointed to  in(juire  into  the  state  of  the  law  aflectiu}^  the  corn 
trade,  and  once  more  the  legislature  was  en^a^ed  in  framinj^  a 
corn  law,'  which  resulted  in  an  act  prohihitinj;  the  importation 
of  wheat  when  the  price  was  under  80s.,  and  renderii./  it  free 
when  above  80s.  Vet,  serious  mis((i\inj^s  existed  as  to  the 
ultiniate  ell'ect  (»f  the  restrictive  lej^islation  respectin<(  corn  in 
the  minds  of  many,  antl  in  the  very  House  of  Lords,  wli ;c,h 
traditi:>nally  stood  in  bold  del'ence  of  a  prcjtectivc  policy,  pro- 
tests were  lodj^ed,  which  indicateil  the  existence  of  a  more 
cidiujhtened  opinion  on  the  real  bearings  of  the  whole  question. 
Lord  Grenville  ami  his  compeers  protested  ajjainst  this  new 
corn  law,  because  they  were  adverse  in  principle  to  all  new 
restraints  in  conunercc,  deeming  it  most  advantageous  to  public 
prosperity  to  leave  uncontrolled  the  free  cmrent  of  national  in- 
dustry. In  their  opinion  "  the  great  piactical  rule  of  leaving 
all  commerce  unfettered,  applied  more  peculiarly,  and  on  still 
stronger  grounds  of  justice  as  well  as  of  policy,  to  the  corn  tratle 
than  to  any  other.  Irresistible,  indeed,  must  be  that  necessity 
which  could,  in  their  judgment,  authorize  the  legislature  to  tamper 
with  the  sustenance  of  the  people,  ami  to  impede  the  free  purchase 
and  sale  of  that  ailiclc,  e:i  which  depends  the  existence  of  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  community.  They  thought  that  expectations  of 
ultimate  benefit  from  any  corn  law  were  founded  on  a  delusive 
theory.  They  could  not  persuade  themselves  that  such  a  law 
would  ever  contribute  to  produce  plenty,  cheapness,  or  steadiness 

1 55  Geo.  III.  c.  36. 


I  IM 


•       t 


w< 


f^^^W!;' 


'Mi.;* 


1 66 


SKI.F.CTIOXS. 


of  price.  So  long  as  it  opcnitctl  at  all,  its  eill-cts  must  he  the 
fipposite  of  these.  Monopoly  is  the  parent  of  scarcity,  clearness, 
and  uncertainty.  To  cnt  oil' any  of  the  sources  of  sup|)ly  can  only 
tend  to  lessen  its  uhundancc.  To  close  a<;ainst  ourselves  the 
cheapest  market  for  any  con.modity,  must  eidtance  the  price  at 
which  we  purchase  it.  And  to  confine  the  consumer  of  corn  to 
the  produce  of  his  own  country,  is  to  refuse  oursehes  the  heneiit 
of  that  provision  whicii  Providence  itself  has  made  for  ecpiali/ing 
to  man  the  variations  of  climate  and  of  seasons.  Hut,  whatever 
mi;,dit  he  the  future  consequences  of  that  law,  at  some  distant  and 
imcertain  period  they  were  convinced  that  these  hopes  must  he 
purchaseil  ai  the  expense  of  a  great  and  present  evil.  To  compel 
the  consumer  to  purchase  corn  dearer  at  home  tiian  it  might  he 
ini[)orted  from  ahroad  was  the  immediate  practical  elVect  of  the 
law  just  passed.  In  this  way  alone  could  it  operate.  Its  present 
prutectidii,  its  i)romiseil  extension  of  agricidture  must  result  (if 
at  all)  from  the  profits  which  it  created  hy  keeping  up  the  jjrice 
of  coin  to  an  artificial  le\el.  These  future  henefits  were  the 
coUM  jueiices  expected,  tliougli  thev  confidentlv  helie\ed  errone- 
ously expecteil,  from  giving  a  hounty  to  the  grower  of  corn  l>y  a 
tax  levied  on  its  consumers."  Such  were  the  reasons  urged 
against  the  corn  law  of  1S15,  and  certaiidy  they  do  honor  to  those 
who  iecorded  them  in  the  journal  of  the  I  louse.  Ihit  man\  a  vear 
was  to  [)ass  ere  the  protests  of  the  lew  did  hecome  the  deliberate 
con\  iction  of  the  entire  conmuriiity. 

Vov  twelve  years  nothing  further  occurred  on  the  subject  of 
the  corn  laws,  except  the  emission  of  repeated  cries  of  distress  hy 
the  agricidtural  classes,  especially  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
country  was  indeed  learning  by  l)itter  experience  ho\s  dinit  is  the 
relation  between  dear  bread  and  bad  trade,  and  the  tinu'  ;iiii\i(l 
w  hen  the  woiking  of  tlie  corn  law  was  to  be  laid  belon.'  tbr  irgisia- 
ture.  "  The  corn  laws,"  said  Mr.  Whitmore,  '•  have  inflicted  the 
greatest  injury  upon  the  general  trade  of  the  world  that  ever,  per- 
haps, was  produced  hy  injudicious  legislation.  They  havi-  de- 
rangeil  its  course,  stagnated  its  current,  and  caused  it  to  ilow  in 
niw  and  far  less  beneficial  channels  than  it  formerly  occupied. 
To  the  corn  laws  he  attributed  the  great  and  ruinous  thutuation 
of  prices,  which  is  the  inevitable  result  of  a  system  of  resti  iction. 
The  more  the  basis  from  whence  your  supplies  are  drawn  is 
wiili'ued,  the  greater  the  steadiness  of  prices  ;  the  more  it  is  nar- 
rowed, the  more  constant  ami  the  more  fatal  is  their  ellecl  on  the 


1 


,car 
ate 

of 

hy 
I'he 
the 


i\ 


Ci\ 


tho 
pcr- 

.Ic 
\v  ii\ 

ition 
lion, 
•u  is 
nar- 
\  the 


THE  CORN   LAWS. 


167 


fluctuations  to  which  you  are  suhjcct.  In  the  early  times,  when 
tliere  was  a  difliculty  in  the  couveyaiicc  of  bulky  comniodities 
from  f)!ie  part  of  the  toimtry  to  another,  arisinjjj  from  want  of 
roads,  when  there  existed  a  prejudice  as  well  as  a  lethal  penalty 
a«jainst  what  was  called  forestallin<^  and  rej^ratinj;,  the  fluctuations 
in  prices  were  immense.  And  the  same  holds  <;ood  as  re<^ards 
other  times  and  other  countries."  Lord  Lauder<laie  himself,  while 
cntertaininj^  considerable  fear  of  foreign  competition,  cUarly 
showed  what  arc  the  solid  and  what  are  the  fictitious  wa\s  to 
ajjricultural  prosperity.  "  I  will  take  upon  myself."  he  said.  *'to 
a'-sert,  that,  if  there  is  any  one  proposition  in  political  ecoiiomy- 
which  may  he  aflirminl,  it  is  this,  that  the  interests  of  landloids 
properly  understood  are  absolutely  identilled  with  the  j^aMieral  in- 
terests of  the  country.  Landlords  have  no  interest  in  hij^h  prices  ; 
hi<:;h  prices  raise  rents  nominallv  and  in  .appearance;  and  n^w 
and  then,  some  temporary  .advantage  mav  be  obtained  from  tliem, 
for  which  landlords  will  always  pay  afterwards  witli  more  tlian 
componiul  interest ;  but  rents  can  oidy  be  raised  larj^jely.  pernia- 
nently,  and  beneficially  to  landlords  by  one  of  two  causes,  both 
of  which  are  ecpiallv  conducive  to  the  prosperity  of  all  utiier 
classes;  lirst,  by  improvements  in  a-^riculture,  which  K'a\e  a 
larijer  surplus  produce  after  the  expense^  of  cultivation  are  de- 
fraved  ;  and,  secondh,  bv  improved  and  extended  marki-ts.  Now, 
all  improvements  of  aj^riculture  which  increase  the  surplus  pro- 
duce of  the  country  are  obviously  a  <lirect  addition  to  tlie  pul)lic 
wealth.  And  how  are  markets  improved  and  exl  Mled?  My 
new  communication,  —  roads,  railways,  canals,  —  but  principally 
by  the  continual  rise  and  increase  of  lar^e  towns  \\  ithin  our  own 
empire,  rendevcil  rich  and  [)rf)sperous  by  thri\  inj^  manufactures, 
and  by  all  the  improvements  in  skill  and  machinery  comiected 
with  su.h  establishments.  The  best  job  for  the  lamllord  is  tlie 
prosperity  of  trade  in  all  its  branches,  as  the  best  job  for  tiaile  is 
a  prosperous  state  of  aj^riculture.  There  is  nothin*;-  to  make 
the  iniiabitant  of  the  town  ami  the  cultivatoi-  of  the  sf)il  jealous 
of  each  other;  (piite  the  contrarv,  for  the  moie  each  produces,  the 
more  he  will  have  to  exchanj^e  for  the  otlur;  and  this  is  the 
foundation  of  the  {.jreat  internal  trade  which  is  worth  oiu-  hun- 
dred times  more  than  all  the  foreijjn  commerce  of  the  country 
put  tojjether." 

Vet,  notwitiistandin^  the  enunciation  of  these  truths,  the  farm- 
ers ciun;^  tenaciously  to  protection;    and    it  \\  .is  not    without   :i 


!i" 


I 

T 

■'1  5 

! 

SI' 

II 


,'■  u 


h 


I'i  k 


1 68 


si:ij:cti()ns. 


{^rcat  stiip^j^lf  that  they  allowed  the  corn  laws  to  he  rehixcd  to 
a  small  extent.  In  the  seshion  of  18^7  resolutions  were  passed  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  to  the  etVect  that  corn  should  he  allowed 
to  he  imported  iVje  of  duty,  in  order  to  he  warehoused,  and  that 
it  should  he  admissihle  for  home  consumption  at  a  shillin<^  per 
(|uarter  duty  when  the  price  of  wheat  should  he  70s.,  and  at  two 
shillings  more  for  every  shillin<^  that  the  price  fell  helow  70s. 
per  (piarter.  These  resolutions,  however,  made  no  proj^ress,  in 
conse(|uence  of  the  change  of  jjjovernment.  'JMie  followin<jf  ses- 
sion the  House  of  Commons  passed  other  resolutions,  to  the  etlect 
of  imposinjf  a  slidinj;  scale  from  23s.  per  <|uarter  when  the  price 
of  wheat  should  he  6.js.,  and  i6s.  Stl.  when  the  price  should 
he  6(>s.,  to  one  .shillinj^  per  tpiarter  when  the  price  should  l)e  at 
and  ahove  7'^s.  per  (piarter.  Antl  upon  these  hases  a  new  corn 
law  was  passed,'  w  Inch,  like  its  j)re(lecessors,  diil  not  lonj^'  remain 
in  iorce. 

It  was  ten  years  after  the  passinor  of  this  first  slidint;  scale,  or 
on  March  15,  1S3S,  that  Mr.  V'iilieis.  seconded  hv  Sir  William 
Mnliswitrtli.  first  commenced  his  attack  on  the  policv  of  tlie  corn 
laws  in  the  House  of  Commons,  thouLjh  witii  little  itlect.  In 
thoNf  ikivs  political  economists  were  simpU  allowed  to  speak  and 
complain.  Their  opinions  were  recei\ed  as  mere  speculative 
theories,  their  recommendations  were  deemed  as  far  heyond  the 
reacli  of  practical  statesmanship,  'inhere  was  onlv  one  minister 
present  \\  hen  Mi'.  X'illiers'  motion  was  made,  and,  as  mij^h!  '.lave 
heeii  expicted,  it  was  lost  In  an  overw  hilmini^  majoritv.  lUit 
ahout  that  time  a  lecluii'was  advertised  to  he  deli\eied  at  Holtoii, 
the  liirthplaci  of  Arkwrij^ht  and  Crompton,  on  tin-  corn  laws,  hy 
a  ptison  (juite  a  stranj^er  to  the  town.  It  was  a  new  suhject  for  a 
lecture,  and,  as  the  puhlic  mind  was  directed  to  tiie  (piestion,  the 
lecture  dnw  a  fair  munher  of  hearers.  The.  lecturer,  howevi 
ftMjild,  oidy  when  it  was  too  late,  that  it  was  not  eas\  to  dial  wah 
economic  (piestions  hetoie  a  mixed  audience,  and  \iv  completely 
hrolu'  down.  The  andienci",  not  prepared  for  the  disappointment, 
l)ecame  impatient  ;md  vociferous,  and  a  riot  was  imi)en(lin;4,  when 
a  youth,  a  medical  student,  rushed  to  the  pl.itform,  and  on  tlu'  spur 
of  the  moment  adtlressed  the  people  on  the  suhject  in  a  vigorous 
and  manl\  manner.  The  ijeople  were  delij^hted  at  this  turn,  and 
Mr.    I'.uilton  won  for  himself  enthusiastic    admiration.     On  the 


U;C;fo.  1\'.  c.  j8. 


■ 


tup:  corn  laws. 


169 


news  of  siicli  ail  event  travelling  to  the  ncijj^ljboring  towns,  the 
vohintoer  lecturer  was  overwhelmed  with  invitations  to  redeliver 
liis  address,  and  everywliere  he  captivated  the  audience  with  his 
elo(|ueiit  attacks  on  nionopolv  and  monopolists. 

As  tlie  interest  in  the  question  of  the  corn  laws  <ijrew  and  extended, 
it  became  evident  that  a  special  and  more  popular  aj^ency  wa.s 
wanted  for  the  purpose,  .and  thus,  in  October  of  iS^^S,  eii,dit '  men 
first  united  themselves  witii  a  view  to  establish  an  Anti-Corn  Law 
A.ssociation.  The  list  of  tiie  provisional  committee  was  after- 
wards increased  to  thirty-seven,  conspicuous  amoii^  them  bein<^ 
John  Bright,  (Jeorji^c  Wilson,  and  Richard  Cobden.  And  the 
object  of  the  association  was  declared  to  be  to  form  a  fund  in 
order  to  dilVuse  information,  by  lectmes  or  pampidets,  011  the 
bearint;  of  the  corn  laws,  to  defray  the  expense  of  prtitioniu;^, 
and,  above  all.  to  create  an  organization  to  brinj;  numl>ers  to- 
gether in  such  force  and  with  such  enei<;\-  of  purpose,  as  to  se- 
cure tiie  j^reat  object,  viz.,  the  complete  freedom  of  trade,  l)v  tlie 
destruction,  not  oidv  of  the  corn  nionopolv,  but  of  all  the  other 
monopolies  bolstered  up  by  this  monster  j^rievance.  Small  was 
the  support  at  Inst  obtained  b\  this  new  association.  \'ery 
few  then  appreciated  its  ^reat  moral  importance.  "  I'or  the 
first  two  or  three  years  of  our  agitation,"  said  Mr.  CObden, 
''  it  was  a  verv  hopeless  matter,  and  there  was  no  t-clat  nor 
applause.  .  .  .  We  sat  in  a  small  room,  and  we  had  a  dini^y  red 
curtain  drawn  across  the  room  that  we  mi^ht  not  i<e  cliillcd  by 
the  paucity  of  our  numbers.  Two  or  tinee  were  all  tliat  were 
here  (Xewall's  liuildini^s)  on  one  occasion,  and  1  recollect  s.iyinj^ 
to  my  friend  I'rentice,  '  Wh;it  a  luckv  thin|L(  it  is  tlie  monopolists 
cannot  draw  aside  that  cuitaii»  and  see  how  many  of  us  tiiere  are, 
for,  if  they  could,  they  would  not  be  nuich  frightened.'  "  It  was 
not  lon;^,  howevei",  ere  the  small  asxiciation  bcj^an  to  in.niili'st  its 
power  and  intluence,  and  when,  aideil  lu  the  powtrlul  support 
of  some,  at  least,  of  the  leaciinj^  journals,  its  voice  n-sounded 
throuj^ii  the  lenj^th  and  breadth  of  the  laud.  Meetinjj;s  and  con- 
ferences then  succeeded  each  other.  From  the  manulacturiu<;- dis- 
tricts the  mtneujent  spread  to  ti>e  metropolis,  and  with  a  clearly 
defined  purpose  in  view,  and  with  the  hi;^hest  economic  author- 
ities to  apj)eal   to   in  supjxtrt   of  their  p;  i:u:i|)les,  the  .\nti-(.''HU 


>  Till- nriniiKil  fniimU'rs  of  the  I.tMijiic  were  John  Hiiij:iiiun  Siiiith,  ArihilMliI  rnnlirc, 
Ricluiril  C'iil)iliii,  rhoin.i.s  Ba/liy,  Wiili.im  H.u-vsnn,  W.  It.  Calliiuli-r,  Ht-iiry  arnl  IMinuiiJ 
As". •<.'(, ,-tli.     (Si'f  Cobiltn  and  lh<-  Lm^'Ui-,  hy  lltiiry  Asliworth,  Ksii.) 


li 
It 


ill 


I- 

m 


ID'        ■[ 

t  li< 

i  in       \'^ 


170 


SELECTIONS. 


m 


(11 


Law  .'igitatois  made  everywhere  a  profound  and  lasting  impres- 
sion. 

On  March  12,  1S39,  Mr.  ViMiers  a<;ain  hrouj^ht  the  snhjcct  of 
tlie  corn  hiws   before  the  House   of  Conunons,  now,  however, 
backed  l)y  a  strong    party  both  inside    and  outside  the    House. 
His  motion  was,  "That  this  House  resolve  itself  into  a  com- 
mittee of  the  whole  House,  to  take  into  consideration  the  act  9 
George  I\'.,  regulating  the  importation  of  foreign  grain."     Mr. 
\'illiers    showed    that  the  corn    laws  were  not  beneficial  to  the 
agricultural  interest,  and  that  neither  the  agricultural  laborer  nor 
the  tanners  reaped    from   them  any  benelit.      He    asserted  that 
the  community  at  large  suO'ered  a    loss   through  the  corn  laws, 
ecjual  to  a  poll  tax  of  Ss.  a  head,  or  a  tax  of  £2  on  each   family 
in  the  kingdom,  and  he  demonstrated  that  commerce  and  shipping 
were  greatly  injured  by  them.     Mr.  Villiers'  motion  was  secoiuleil 
by  Sir    (Jeorgc  Strickland,  and  on    nis  side  spoke  Mr.   I'oulett 
Thomson,  Sir  William  Molesw(nth,  Mr.  Grote,  Mr.  Clay,  Lord 
Howich,  Sir  Henry  I*arnell,  Mr.  Ward,  Lord  John  Russell,  Mr. 
Hume,    Mr.    Fielden,  and  Mr.   O'Connell  ;    whilst  against    him 
were  Sir  James  Graham,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  a  host  of  Con- 
servatives.    The    discussion   was    animated  and  well    sustained, 
and  after  five  whole  nights'  debate  the  votes  were  taken  and  the 
motion  was  lost  by  195  to  342.     In  the  House  of  Lords,  too,  a 
discussion  was  conmienceil  on  the  subject.     On   March    14    the 
Earl  of  Fitzwilliam   moved,  "  That  the  act  9  (ieorge  I\'.  c.  60, 
entitled  '  An  Act  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  the  imi)i)rtation  of 
corn,'  has  failed   to  secure  that  steadiness  in  tlte  price  of  grain 
which  is  essential  to  the  best  intere  .ts  of  the  country;"  but  the 
motion  was  lost  by  24  against  224.     A  day  after  Lord  nnn.gham 
moved.   "That  this   House  i\o  immediately  resolve  itself  into  a 
committee  of  the  whole  House,  to  take    into  consideration  the 
im|)ortation  of  foreign  corn."     lint  the  motion  met  a  similar  tatc, 
only  7  having  voted  for  it.  and  61   against  it.     Slow  is  the  pro- 
gress of  any  measure  in  the  House  of  C(»mmons  when  any  sub- 
stantial reform  is  contemplated,  but  slovtr  still  is  its  advance  in 
the  House  of  Lords.     Coming  less   in  contact  with  the  mass  of 
the  people,  comparatively  strangers  to  tlieir  feelings  and  wants, 
conservative  by  interest  and   hereditary   policy,  tin."  pi'i  t  >  of  the 
realm  are  necessarily  the  last  to  admit  the  neci!  of  change,  and 
the  last  to  make  concessions  to  the  altered  exigencies  of  tlu-  limes. 
Neveitbeless,' there  have  never  been  wanting  enlightened  members 


tllC 
60, 

of 
ain 
the 
)am 
lo  a 
the 
ate, 
)n)- 
kul)- 

ili 

of 

nts, 

the 

arul 

U'S. 


THE   CORN    LAWS. 


171 


in  the  upper  House  who  sought  the  maintenance  and  preservation 
of  their  order  from  that  same  law  of  pro;j;ress  on  which  all  the 
institutions  of  the  realm  depend,  and  who,  far  from  re^ardin;^ 
their  interests  as  antaj^onistic  to  those  of  <jthcr  classes  of  society, 
had  the  wisdom  to  discern  tl  at  we  are  all  subject  to  the  same 
laws,  inlluenced  by  the  same  circumstances,  and  alike  hound  to 
obey  those  laws  of  natur;-,  which,  more  than  any  human  contriv- 
ance, determine  the  proj^ress  and  prosperity  (>(  states. 

The  result  of  Mr.  Villiers*  motion  in  the  House  of  Commons  was 
not  likely  to  discouraj^e  the  Anti-Corn  Law  Association.  On  the 
cont:ar\ ,  it  imparted  to  it  a  new  life  and  a  fresh  impulse.  Deter- 
mineil  to  peisevere  till  the  end,  the  a^dtators  saw  in  the  strength 
of  their  opponents  only  an  additional  cause  for  more  encr^^etic 
labors.  A  meeting;  was  accordinj^ly  orj^ani/eil  in  London,  and 
the  same  voice  which  lirst  <^ave  strength  and  vivacitv  Ui  the  Man- 
chester jj[atherin<(,  was  now  heard  exclaiming,  "  We  are  the  rep- 
resentatives of  three  millions  of  people,  — a  far  j^reater  lunnber  of 
constituents  than  the  House  ever  could  boast  of.  We  well  know 
that  >io  f^reat  (Minciple  was  ever  indebted  to  rarliaujent  for  suc- 
cess ;  the  vicu)ry  must  be  j^ained  out  of  doors.  The  jj[reat  towns 
of  IJritain  have  e~;tendeil  the  ri^ht  hand  of  fellowship  to  t-ach 
other,  and  their  alliance  will  be  a  llanseatic  leaj^ue  a},'ainst  tiie 
feudal  corn-law  plundeiers."  'i'lic  Anti-Corn  Law  League  was 
never  a  political  or<^ani/ation.  For  yi'ars  its  memhi  rs  went  on 
lecturinj;,  distributinj^  tracts,  and  actinj»  as  a  peripatetic  nni\ersity 
in  instructinj^  the  people  on  the  e\il  of  connuercial  monopoly. 
Never  ilid  it  allow  itself  (o  be  tempted  to  other  political  topics. 
The  League  ilid  not  eve>!  wisi'  to  iuti-rfere  with  the  system  of 
taxation.  I'urther  than  exlinj;uishin<^,  at  once  and  forevei',  the 
principle  of  maintainin<;  taxes  \\>v  tlie  benelit  of  a  particular  class. 
"If  it  be  asked,"  said  Mr.  Cobden.  "  why  it  is  that  \m-.  pio- 
fessinj;  to  be  tree-traders  in  ever\  tiling,  should  restrict  die  title  of 
our  association  to  that  of  tlie  '  \atioi\a!  Anti-Corn  Law  Leaj^ue,' 
I  will  explain  the  reason.  We  advocate  the  abolition  of  the  corn 
hiw  because  we  believe  that  to  be  tlie  foster-parent  of  all  ot'ur 
monopolies;  and  if  we  destroy  that. —  the  patent,  the  '.loii^ter 
monopoly,  —  it  will  save  us  th.e  trouble  of  ilestr'-;,  mj;  all  the 
rest." 


,     ir. 


I 


I       I  Ml    ! 


•72 


Si;i.KCTI()\S. 


Pa  in   l\' 


■I'liAr.  I. 


:      I  i) 


rit 


TIr-  (l;iy  anivc'd  wlu-n  tlif  j^fovcniniciit  of  the  coiinliy  liiid  to  be 
coiifulcd  to  the  i^iiiit  Coiiser\ativc  partv  in  the  IIoiisi".  I'or  some 
time  past  iht'  achniiiistiatioM  of  Lord  Mtll)omne  had  shown  immis- 
takahJL'  si;j;iis  of  inherent  weakness,  and  its  opponents,  comitinLJ 
amon<^  tliem  such  men  as  Sir  Kohfit  I'eel,  Lord  Stanle\ ,  Mr. 
(ihidstitno,  and  Mr.  I)israj;li,  were  decidedly  j^aininj;  strenj^th  and 
inllueiiee.  'IMie  Conservative  party  has  been  cliarjfed  with  thwart- 
in<i;  and  opposiiij;  the  liberal  tendencies  of  the  nation,  and  they 
certaiidy  resisted  tlie  passin;^f  of  the  Reform  Hill,  the  repeal  of 
tiie  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  and  the  ICmancipation  of  Roman 
Catholics.  Yet  a  memorable  Conservative  administration  is  lu  - 
fore  US,  which  inanj^nrated  an  era  of  j^reat  prosperitv,  and  one 
which,  nnder  the  presidin;j;  «fenins  of  Sir  Robert  Peil,  has  ever 
since  been  held  in  j^rateful  remembrance  for  the  practical  wisilom 
which  it  displa\ed,  and  the  bold  and  vij^orons  commercial  and 
hnancial  policy  it  carried  into  etVect.  Sir  Robert  IVel  had  already 
{gained  for  himself  a  hi_i;h  repntation  as  a  statesman.'  Asa  mem- 
ber of  the  Bullion  Committee  of  iSio,  as  nnder-secretarv  for  the 
colonies  ilnrinj;  the  most  tryin<^  years  of  the  Continental  \\  ai',  as 
secretarv  ibi'  Ireland,  in  all  these  capacities  he  proveil  himself  an 
.ible  minister  and  an  economist  of  much  piactical  wisdom;  and  it 
was  a  '^ood  ouiei\  for  the  countrv  when,  in  Septemi)er.  iS^i,  at  a 
time  of  nuich  llnai\cial  anxiety,  .Sir  Robeit  Peel  was  called  to 
take  the  helm  of  the  State. 

There  was  somethiui^  novel  and  encourai^in;^  in  the  speech 
from  tl  irone  which  opiiu-d  the  labors  of  the  new  adminis- 
tr.Uioii.  Iler   Majestv  is  anxious  that   this  'iliject,   vi/.,   the   in- 

creasi"  ni  the  |)ublic  revenue,  should  be  etlecleil  in  the  maimer 
least  burilensome  to  her  people;  aid  it  has  appeared  to  Her 
Majesty,  afti'i  tidl  deliberation,  that  you  max,  at  this  junctme, 
properly  direct  your  attention  to  the  re\  ision  of  duties  alVectin^ 
pioductions  of  forei*;n  countries.  It  will  be  for  you  to  consitler, 
whether  some  (»f  the  duties  are  not  so  tiilbn;j[  in  amount  as  to  be 
unpi'oductive  to  the  revenue,  while  they  are   vexatious   to   com- 


'  Nil  Hiil>rrt  I'l't  I's  I'mnI  .KliiiiiiUlr.ilinii  was  n  slmrt  niu'.  Ilr  fnriiu'd  liis  C';il>im't  i  ii  I  >• 
ci'iiiln'i  u.  iS;(,  :iii(l  rorlhwitli  ilissnlvid  I'm  liiiinciil.  A  \\v.w  I'arliaiiU'iit  w;«s  MiiniiMi.rd  to 
liifit  'HI  lTl)ni:ir\  ii,,  \<\^.  '"il  ;iii  imiciiiliiuiil  |o  tin-  aililri'ss  Wiis  Ciiiriiil  in  the  llimsc  nf 
t'liniiiii  11^  i>!i  I- <  111  11.11  y  id,  bv  ,1  111.1 1.  II  it-.  .>!  JO)  I.  p  \iM.  Otiifi  ;iilvtisi'  ilivi>ii  iii^  illlllK^li.lll■ly 
tIl<•l'^Mtt^■r  i>H>k  |ilm:v,  ami  >ir  Uolxrrt  I'eel  aiinxincvd  his  rfsij;iiiiti(>n  of  tl»f  lllilli^try  on 
Ajitil  s. 


:h 


iturc, 

jsiclcr, 
to  1h' 
coin- 


(1  to 


•.li.it.ly 
itiy  <ii> 


Tllli   (.OKN    LAWS. 


1/3 


nuMcc.  ^'(>ll  m;iy  further  examine  wlu'ther  tlie  principle  of  pio- 
liihitioii,  in  wliicli  others  ot'  these  (hities  are  founded,  he  not 
carried  to  an  extent  injurious  ahUe  to  the  iuconie  of  the  state  and 
tlie  interest  of  the  people,  ller  Majesty  is  desirous  tiiat  vou 
shoulil  consider  the  laws  which  rej^idate  the  trade  in  corn.  It 
will  he  for  you  to  determine  wiiether  those  laws  do  not  a;^>fra\ate 
the  natural  lluctuation  of  suppK  .  wiiether  they  do  not  eniliarrass 
trade,  diranj^e  cuirency,  and  hy  their  operation  diminish  the  com- 
fort and  increase  the  privations  of  the  }i;reat  hody  <>f  the 
community."  Surely  this  was  a  proj^rannne  more  liheral  than 
conlii  ha\e  hei-n  expected  fVom  a  CoMS(.rvati\  e  ministry  ;  t)ul  the 
tcm|)er  ol"  the  people  and  tlie  exij^encies  of  the  time  dcnianded 
that  and  a  [(reat  deal  more,  (jloom  and  discontent  pieyailed 
cxtensiyely  throu<j;hont  the  manufacturing  districts.  The  Aiiti- 
Corii-Law  Leaj^ue  had  hy  this  time  hecome  formidahle.  The 
demand  was  loud  and  imperious  for  cheap  food,  and  thi-  total 
re|)i;d  of  the  corn  laws.  And  on  the  day  lixed  for  the  amiouuce- 
ment  ol  the  ministerial  measure  some  live  hundred  depiitii-s  from 
the  .AiitiCorn-I^aw  v\ssociations  in  the  metro])olis  and  provinces 
wt'ul  in  procession  to  the  House  of  L'ommoiis,  hut  wire  retiised 
admittance.  Vet  with  all  this  the  {^oyernnunt  was  not  discon- 
ciited.  and  with  impertnrhahle  j^ra\  ity  on  I'ehruary  9,  iS  }2,  Sir 
Roh(.it  IVel  exposed  the  policy  of  the  cahinet  on  the  corn  laws. 
At  lirst  Sir  Rohert  Teel  <lid  not  attach  much  wei;;ht  to  the 
influence  of  these  laws.  In  his  speech  in  tiie  House,  he  said  that 
to  his  mind  tiie  (juestion  was  not  so  much  what  was  the  price  of 
food,  as  what  was  the  command  which  the  lahoriiij^  classes  of  the 
populatiDii  had  (jf  all  that  constituted  the  enjoyments  of  life.  His 
helicf  and  tiie  helief  of  his  coUeaj^ues  was,  that  it  was  important 
lor  the  country  to  take  caie  that  the  main  source  of  the  supply  of 
corn  siiould  he  derived  from  domestic  aj^riculture.  And  he  con- 
tended that  a  certain  amount  ot"  protection  was  ahsolute!\  ie([uircd 
for  that  industry.  Hut  he  made  a  most  important  avowal,  one 
\vhich  no  Protectionist  ministr\  had  ever  made,  that  protection 
should  not  he  retained  for  the  special  henelit  of  any  particular 
class,  hut  only  for  the  aihanta^e  of  the  nation  at  lar;j;e.  ami  in  so 
far  only  as  was  consistent  \v  ith  tlie  j.jeneral  welfare  of  all  classes 
t)f  society.  Sir  Rohert  Peel  then  entered  on  the  e\u  nf  of  such 
protection,  and  hayinjj;  taken  5  js.  to  58s.  per  (juarter,  as  the  price 
at  which  corn  should  ran^e  for  a  fair  remuneration  to  the  a;jri- 
culturist,   lie    asked,    Shall  the  corn   laws  he  bused  on  a  slidin<^ 


IP 


"II 

1  I" 


\\ 


;/|l 


Ini 


'■ 


V 

n. 

.■  \\ 


!<:  ■ 


174 


SKLECTIONS. 


;vi  ■■ 


n 


u 


II 


sciilf,  or  oil  a  fixed  duty?  Much  niij^ht  l)e  said  for  tlif  one  and 
for  the  other.  A  slidin<j  scale  was  introduced  in  France  in  1S19, 
one  had  lieen  adoptcil  in  lielf^'iuin.  the  Netlierhuids,  and  other 
Countries,  and  it  seemed  to  have  tlie  advantaj^e  of  adaptinjj;  itself 
to  every  circumstance.  But  experience  did  not  contirm  the  hopes 
entertained  of  its  workinjr.  It  did  not  hinder  prices  fallin;^  lower 
than  was  desirable  in  »oars  of  scarcity  ;  and  it  ha<l  the  same  prej- 
udicial ell'ect  as  every  corn  law  u(  causinfj  the  cultivation  of 
land  to  Ite  rej^ulated,  not  by  inherent  capacity,  but  by  the  amount 
of  forced  stimulus  j^iven  to  it  by  the  Lej^islature.  Hesides  these 
radical  defects  the  objections  ur^etl  a}j;ainst  the  sliding;  scale  were, 
that  the  reduction  of  dutv  was  so  rapid  as  to  hold  out  temptation 
to  fraud  ;  that  it  operated  as  an  inducement  to  retain  corn,  or 
combine  for  the  purpose  of  inlluenciu}^  the  averaj^es  ;  that  the 
rapid  decline  of  the  duty  was  injurious  to  the  consumer,  the  pro- 
ducer, the  revenue,  and  the  commerce  of  the  country  ;  that  it  was 
injurious  to  the  consumer  because,  when  corn  was  at  a  hi^h 
price  —  say,  between  CtGs.  and  70s. —  and  just  when  it  would  be  for 
the  public  advantaj,^'  that  corn  should  be  liberated  for  the  purpose 
of  cousiunption,  the  j(»iiit  operation  of  increased  price  and 
dimini.shed  duty  induced  the  holders  to  keep  it  back,  in  the  hope 
of  reali/inj^  the  price  of  upwards  of  70s.  and  so  payin<j^  only  is. 
duty  ;  that  it  operated  injiniously  to  the  agricultural  interest,  be- 
cause it  held  out  a  temptation  to  keep  back  corn  ujitil  it  could 
be  suddenly  entered  for  consumpti(»n  at  the  lowest  amoimt  of 
duty,  w  hen  the  agriculture  lost  the  protection  which  the  law  in- 
tended it  should  possess;  that  it  was  injurious  to  the  re\enue, 
because,  instead  of  corn  being  entered  for  home  consum[)tion 
when  it  arrived,  it  was  retained  until  it  could  be  introduced  at 
IS.,  the  reveiuie  losing  the  ditlerence  between  is.  and  the  amount 
of  duty  which  would  otherwise  have  been  levied  ;  that  it  was 
injurious  to  commerce,  because,  when  corn  was  grown  at  a  dis- 
tance—  in  America  for  instance  —  the  grower  was  subject  to  the 
disadvantage  that  before  his  cargo  arrived  iti  this  country  the  sud- 
den entries  of  wheat  at  is.  duty  from  countries  nearer  I'^nglanil 
might  have  so  diminished  the  price  and  increased  the  duty,  as  to 
cause  his  speculation  to  prove  not  only  a  failure  but  ruinous. 
These  were  formidable  objectiotis  to  any  sliding  scale,  but  be- 
tween a  gradual  and  a  fixed  rate  of  duty  there  was  not  a  material 
dillerence.  On  the  other  hand,  a  fixed  duty  of  8s.  per  quarter  was 
too  low  as  a  protection  in  time  01  abundance,  and  was  in  elVect  a 


TIIK   CORN    LAWS. 


/  3 


tcM-ial 

was 

ll'Ct  a 


pr{>liihit()ry  iliity  in  time  of  scarcity.  Nor  was  it  jjossihlc  to  main- 
tain more  than  a  nominal  tlnty  when  prices  l)e;;an  to  rise.  It  was 
indeed  dillicult  to  strike  the  hahmce  ofadN  antaj^e  and  inconvenience 
between  the  slithnj^  scale  and  the  lixed  ihity.  So,  on  the  whole, 
Sir  Koherl  I'eel  favored  the  principle  of  the  sliding;  scale  —  that  is, 
of  tnaking  the  duty  upon  corn  vary  inversely  with  the  price  in 
the  home  market,  takinj;  the  averaj^e  of  the  market  prices  tVom 
returns  collected  by  excise  ollicers,  Havinji;,  therefore,  decided 
on  char^inj^  -los.  duty  when  the  averaj^e  price  of  wheat  was  50s. 
and  51s.  per  cpiarter,  he  proposed  to  make  the  duty  fall  l>y  a  re- 
duction of  IS.  a  ([uarter  as  the  avera<;e  price  rose  is.  with  some 
slight  modifications,  so  that  the  duty  should  he  only  is.  [)er  cpiar- 
ter, when  the  price  of  wheat  rose  to  ^j^s.  a  cpiarter  and  U])wanls, 
ami  a  hill  so  framed  he  presented  to  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
House  was  not  prepared  at  the  time  for  a  very  liberal  measure. 
Lord  John  Russell  maile  motion  in  favor  of  a  fixed  duty,  but 
it  was  not  popular,  and,  notwithstandinj^  a  few  expressions  of 
dissatisfaction,  the  (lovermncnt  proposal  was  well  received. 
Lord  John  liusseU's  amendment  was  lost  by  226  to  349,  and  Sir 
Robert  Peel's  bill  passed  into  law.'  Hut  the  countrv  was  not 
satisfied.  Meetin<fs  continued  to  be  held  in  the  manufactuiin^ 
districts,  and  Mr.  Villiers,  stimulated  by  the  representations  and 
cflbrts  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  Leaj;ue,  aj^ain  l)rou;^ht  forward  his 
motion  for  the  total  repeal  of  the  corn  laws,  which  was  a-^ain  lost 
by  the  enormous  majority  of  90  to  393.  The  battle  of  the  corn 
laws  had  by  this  time  become  violent,  both  in  and  out  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  Mr.  Villiers  was  not  likely  to  be  dispiriteil  by  the 
result  of  tlfis  division. 

It  is  not,  however,  by  the  \ain  attempt  to  render  a  corn  law 
acceptalile  that  the  commercial  administration  of  Sir  Ko!)ert  Peel 
will  be  leineuibered.  That  was,  at  best,  a  temporacy  and  transi- 
tory measure.  It  is  vvh'Mi  we  consiiler  his  financial  policy  as  u 
whole,  and  more  especially  the  plan  which  he  deviseil  for  im[)rov- 
ing  the  state  of  the  finances,  and  impartinj^  new  life  to  commerce 
and  industry,  that  we  recogni/e  the  breadth  of  view,  the  sound 
wisdom,  and  practical  knowledge  which  Sir  Robert  Peel  p(js- 
sessed.  For  years  past  the  finances  of  the  country  had  fallen  into 
complete  disorder.  An  annual  deficiency  of  one  or  two  millions 
had  become  a  chronic  evil,  and  no  means  of  escape  presented  it- 


» S  &  6  Vict.  c.  14.    [Tiible  oinitUd.] 


(  h 


1 : 

111' 

I  IK 
i  111 


. '  t  ■* 


1;'!  i' 


i^C) 


sr.i.KirioNs. 


W 


!  ii  I ;  • 


self.'  With  a  ilisalVcctcd  jH'npU',  hikI  rii'(|iu'nt  riots  in  tlio  niami- 
factiirin;^  districts,  with  a  paialvscd  trade,  and  wa^jis  ridiiccd  to 
a  vorv  low  scale,  any  idea  of  imposin;^  new  taxes,  or  niakin<; 
those  e\istin'4  iiea\  ier,  was  out  of  tlie  (itiesti(tn.  A  temporary  and 
t.isnal  (U'lieieney  nii^ht  liave  been  nii-t  hy  an  issue  of  e\che(pier 
l)ills  ;  liut  what  wtiuhl  have  heeti  the  use  of  rcsottinj;  to  such 
fxpechenl  wlien  there  was  no  j^romid  wliatever  lor  expectin^j  any 
immediate  improvement?  On  the  other  liand,  to  have  recourse 
to  loans  in  times  of  peace  in  order  to  halance  the  revenue  and 
e\|)enditure,  was  ecpially  inadmissible.  Sir  Uohert  I'eel  knew 
that  a  timely  and  moderate  reduction  of  taxes  is  favorable  rather 
than  injiM'ions  to  the  revenue.  lie  knew  that,  thouj,di  tor  the 
moment  such  a  reduction  mi^ht  show  a  loss,  nevertheless,  l)y  the 
stimulus  it  allords  to  increasiiin^  consumption,  the  revemie  would 
soon  recover  itselt,  and  probably  exceed  the  am(»nnt  previously 
produci'd.  ^  el,  unfortunately,  the  tew  precedents  he  had  for 
such  an  operation,  attempted  in  times  not  very  [)ros[)erons,  were 
not  enc(iiira^fin<j^.  In  1S25  the  revenue  from  wine  amounteil  to 
i,'i.i5,^,(KMi.  The  duty  was  then  reduced  from  ys.  i '4(1.  to 
^s.  2-^'4<l.  per;.^allon  ;  and  what  was  the  result?  The  year  alter  the 
reveiuie  was  t"i  ..j(X),(kx)  ;  it  afterwards  increased  to  fi  .7<Ki.(xxj, 
but  it  fell  aj^ain  to  ,t' I  ,.|(J(i,0(X).  The  duty  on  tobacco  had  been 
reduced  iVom  }s.  to  3s.  per  lb.  Hefore  the  reduction  the  revenue 
was  t'3.3J'S,o<)0 ;  immediately  after  it  fell  to  i,'j,6oo,cxx> ;  and, 
thou<;;h  it  rose  somewhat  from  that  point,  it  did  not  reach  the 
previous  amount.  Of  comse  the  consumption  of  articles  of 
luxury,  such  as  wine  and  tobacco,  is  not  so  alVected  by  a  reduc- 
tion of  tlnty,  as  that  of  tea,  sugar,  and  otlicr  necessaiies  of  life. 
Moreover,  the  resources  of  the  country  were,  at  that  time,  com- 
paratively undeveloped  to  admit  of  any  lar;^c  increase  of  con- 
sumption. Still,  such  experience  did  not  warrant  the  expectation 
that  a  reduction  of  taxes  would  have  the  ellect  of  tilling  the  cx- 
che(iuer. 

But  the  circumstances  of  trade  recpiiretl  instant  relief,  and  the 
taritr  needed  a  thorough  reform  and  simplitlcation.  'J'wo  vears 
before,  in  iS.jo,  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Hume,  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  was  appointed  to  impure  into  the  duties  levied 
on  imports,  and  to  deteimine  how  far  they  were  imposetl  tor  pur- 


>  The  dcficiciu.y  in  the  yciir  ciuk-il  April  5,  1S41,  was  £1,157,601 ;  in  the  year  ended  April 
S,  1S4J,  £117,627;  and  iS43,  £2,704,510. 


II 


Till",   CORN    LAWS. 


177 


ami, 

li  the 
fs  of 
cdiic- 

lifc. 

oin- 

Ct)ll- 

tion 
cx- 

the 
,ears 

the 
nied 
pur- 
April 


poses  (tf  revenue;  and  in  their  report  the  committee  said  :  "The 
taiilV  of  the  I'liited  Kinj^doin  presents  neither  eonjLjiuity  nor  iniity 
of  puiposc;  no  j^eneral  principles  seem  to  ha\e  l)ein  apphid. 
'I'he  tarilV  often  ain)s  at  incompatihlc  ends;  the  (hities  an-  sumc- 
times  meant  to  he  hoth  prothutivi-  of  revenue  and  for  pidli'ilioii, 
objects  wliich  ate  iVeciuently  inconsistent  u  itli  eacli  otliei.  Ilence 
the\  sometimes  operate  to  tlie  complete  exchisioii  of  f()rei<^n  pro- 
(hice,  and,  in  so  far,  no  revenue  can  of  coinse  i)i'  recii\ed;  and 
souu'times,  when  the  chity  is  inordinately  liij^Ii,  the  amnmU  of 
re\en'ie  is,  in  conhe(|iience,  trillinj;.  They  do  not  make  the  re- 
ceipt of  revenue  the  main  consideration,  l)ul  allow  that  primary 
object  of  fiscal  regulations  to  he  thwartetl  hy  the  attempt  to  pro- 
tect a  ^reat  \ariety  of  particular  interests  at  the  expense  of  ie\eiuie. 
and  of  the  commercial  intercourse  u  ith  other  countries.  Whilst 
the  taiitV  has  heeii  made  subordinate  to  many  small-produciii<^ 
interests  at  home  by  the  sacrifice  of  revenue,  in  <ii(ler  to  su|)poit 
their  interest,  the  same  principle  of  interference  is  lar<4ely  applied, 
bv  the  various  discriminating  duties,  to  the  protluce  of  our  col- 
onies, by  which  exclusive  advantaj^es  are  ^'ixeii  to  the  odonial 
interests  at  the  expense  of  the  mother  countiy."  Such  wire  the 
general  teatiues  of  the  tariff,  the  result  of  years  of  careless  U-gis- 
lation  on  the  subject.  The  fact  was  indeed  too  evident  that  it 
was  necessary  to  prune  the  over-burdened  taritV,  .and  to  liberate 
a  large  variety  of  aVticles  from  the  needless  tiauunels  of  legisla- 
tion. 

Hut  how  to  accomplish  this  without  a  handsome  suiplus  rev- 
enue? l'\jrtunately  .Sir  Kobert  I'eel,  undeterred  by  the  state  of 
the  reveiuie,  determhied  to  do  what  was  necessary  for  trade. 
And  he  acted  wisely.  I'ntrammel  industry  fVoni  the  bonds  of 
leg.al  restrictions,  open  the  awuue  to  wealth  and  prospeiity  :  that 
is  the  right  policy.  Pursue  this  course,  and  there  is  no  fear 
but  the  revenue  will  set  itself  speedil)'  right.  Some  slight 
reductions  he  made  in  iS.}i,  but  on  March  11,  iSjJ.  in  his 
famou  -  financial  statement,  he  proposed  to  reduce  considerably 
all  the  duties  on  the  raw  materials  of  mauufacturi'.  all  duties  on 
goods  partially  or  wholly  manufactured,  as  well  as  the  duties  on 
timber,  and  all  export  duties,  together  producing  fi  ,5(X),ooo ; 
and  to  make  up  this  loss,  as  well  as  the  duties  on  timber  and  all  ex- 
port duties,  together  producing  .£,' 1 ,5oo,cxx) ;  and  to  make  up  this 
loss,  and  to  provide  for  the  original  deficit  in  the  revemie,  amount- 
ing to  iJ2, 570,000,  by  an  income  and  property  tax  of  yd.  in  the 


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178 


SELECTIONS. 


H  \ 


poutul,  which  he  expected  would  produce  £3.700,000;^  by  the 
equalization  of  the  stamp  and  spirit  duties,  which  would  give 
£400,000 ;  and  by  a  small  tax  on  the  exportation  of  coals,  which 
would  give  ,£200,000,  ma'-.ing  in  all  £4,310.000.  It  was  a  very 
fcimplc  plan  ;  yet  there  was  profound  wisdom  in  Sir  Robert  Peel's 
budget.  The  value  of  the  reductions  proposed  far  exceeded  the 
amount  of  relief  in  taxation  they  each  and  collectively  aftbrded. 
The  removal  of  the  taxes  on  raw  materials  was  a  great  boon, 
inasmuch  as  they  had  the  eflect  of  putting  our  manufactures  in  a  dis- 
advantageous position  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  restrict- 
ing the  field  for  the  employment  of  capital  and  labor.  As  was 
said  in  the  discussion  on  the  budget,  suppose  50,000  head  of  cattle 
were  to  be  annually  imported  in  consequence  of  such  remissions, 
such  importation  would  produce  but  a  small  eflect  on  the  price 
of  meat,  but  it  would  create  an  import  trade  to  the  amount  of 
half  a  million  of  money,  a  trade  which,  in  its  nature,  would  tend 
to  i^roduce  an  export  trade,  in  return,  of  an  equal  amount. 
Our  export  trade  is  measured  and  limited  by  our  import  trade. 
If  an  individual  merchant  cannot  aflbrdto  send  his  goods  to  other 
countries  without  obtaining  any  return,  neither  can  all  merchants 
collectively,  and  the  country  as  a  whole,  aflbrd  to  export  com- 
modities to  foreign  countries,  if  in  some  shape  or  other  imports 
are  not  received  from  those  countries  in  return.  Reduce  tlie  duties 
on  imports,  and  you  thereby  promote  the  export  of  oin-  produce 
and  manufactures.  Remove  those  taxes  which  burden  our  manu- 
factures, and  you  promote  the  importation  of  those  articles  which 
are  necessary  to  the  comfort  and  welfare  of  the  nation.  The  in- 
come tax  might  be  odious,  "inquisitorial,  intolerable,"  yet  it 
was  at  that  time  the  only  means  by  which  the  necessary  reforms 
in  the  tariff  could  be  attempted.  And  the  nation,  liaving  balanced 
the  evil  and  the  good  of  the  proposal,  and  being  convinced  that 
the  advantages  preponderated,  cheerfully  accepted  the  government 
proposal,  and  gave  to  the  proposal  its  hearty  consent. 

The  commercial  policy  thus  inaugurated  by  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
being  in  perfect  accord  with  sound  economic  principles,  could  not 
fail  to  be  successful.  From  1S41  to  1843,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
was  a  yearly  deficit  in  the  budget.  In  the  year  ending  April  5, 
1844,  Sir  Robert  Peel  found  himself  in  possession  of  a  handsome 

1  The  amount  of  duty  assessed,  in  1S43,  was  £5,608,348.  The  amount  of  property  assessed 
was  :  Schedule  A,  £95,284,497 ;  Schedule  B,  £46,769,915 ;  Schedule  C,  £27,909,793 ;  Schedule 
D<  ^7'>330>344;  Schedule  £,£9,718,454.    Total,  £251,013,003.    [Additional  note  omitted.] 


THE   CORN   LAWS. 


179 


surplus  of  £2,600,000,  which  was  exceeded  in  the  following  year, 
and  continued  at  a  high  point  for  four  consecutive  years. ^  The 
exports  of  British  produce,  which  in  1842  had  fallen  to  £47,000,- 
000,  increased  to  £52,000,000  in  1843  ;  to  £58,000,000  in  1S44; 
and  £60,000,000  in  1845.  The  shipping  entered  and  cleared  in- 
creased from  9,000,000  tons  in  1842  to  12,000,000  tons  in  1S45. 
In  every  way,  financially  and  commercially,  the  results  fully 
realized  the  anticipations  formed,  and  Sir  Robert  was  encouraged 
to  advance  still  further  in  the  same  direction.  Nothing  important 
was  attempted  in  the  budget  of  1843,*  but  in  1844  the  duty  on 
wool  was  abolished ;  the  duties  on  currants  and  coflee  were  re- 
duced, and  a  great  change  was  made  on  the  duties  on  marine 
insurance.  And  then,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  previous  chitpter, 
the  differential  duties  against  foreign-grown  sugar  were  relaxed, 
by  permitting  the  importation  of  sugar,  the  growth  of  China, 
Java,  or  Manilla,  or  of  any  other  countries  which  Her  Majesty  in 
council  shall  have  declared  to  b,e  admissible,  at  moderate  rates. 
In  1845  another  still  more  important  series  of  reform  was  intro- 
duced. The  duty  on  cotton  wool,  which,  however  slight  and  in- 
appreciable on  the  coarser  material,  pressed  rather  heavily  on  the 
finer  muslin,  was  abolished.  The  export  duty  on  coals,  which 
had  been  found  vexatious  and  injurious,  was  removed.  The 
timber  duties  were  further  reduced.  The  duty  on  glass  was  re- 
moved from  the  tarifl",  and  also  the  duties  on  four  hundred  and 
thirty  articles,  which  produced  little  or  no  revenue,  including 
fibrous  materials,  such  as  silk,  hemp,  and  flax,  furniture,  woods, 
cabinet-makers'  materials,  animal  and  vegetable  oil,  ores  and 
minerals,  etc.  In  1S46  the  liberal  policy  was  further  extended. 
Hitherto  our  manufacturers  had  been  benefited  by  the  free  access 
granted  to  the  raw  materials.  It  was  right  to  ask  of  them  to 
relinquish  some,  at  least,  of  the  protecting  duties  still  in  existence. 
And  the  duties  on  linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  manufactures  were 
reduced  from  20  to  10  per  cent.  The  silk  duties,  then  at  30  per 
cent.,  were  also  reduced  to  15  per  cent.  A  reduction  was  made 
on  the  duties  on  stained  paper,  on  manufactures  of  metals,  on 
earthenware,  on  carriages,  and  on  manufoctures  of  leather ;  and 
the  duties  on  butter,  cheese,  and  hops  were  further  reduced.' 

iThe  surplus  in  the  year  ended  April  5,  1844,  was  £2,685,135;  1S45,  £3,027,615;  1S46, 
£1,647,324;  and  in  1847,  £2,823,762. 

>  [Foot-note  on  "  Taxes  Reduced  or  Repealed,"  omitted.] 

'  in  1842  there  were  i,0(,o  articles  and  subdivisions  of  articles  charged  with  distinct  rates 
of  import  duty  in  the  Customs  Tariff.     In  1S46  the  number  was  reduced  to  424. 


I'ji 


M'': 


w 

i''i 


1 80 


SELECTIONS. 


But  was  it  right  to  etVect  all  these  reforms  without  asking  for 
reciprocity  on  the  part  of  foreign  countries?  For  years  past  it 
was  known  that  Her  Majesty's  government  had  used  every  eflbrt 
to  enter  into  treaties  with  several  states,  such  as  Brazil,  Portugal, 
Spain,  and  France,  with  a  view  to  enter  into  a  system  of  mutual 
concessions.  In  1S43  and  1S44  Mr.  Ricardo  brought  the  subject 
before  the  House  of  Commons,  and  moved  for  an  address  to  Her 
Majesty,  praying  that  Her  Majesty  be  pleased  to  give  directions 
to  her  servants  not  to  enter  into  any  negotiations  with  foreign 
powers  which  would  make  any  contemplated  alterations  of  th"? 
tariff  of  the  United  Kingdom  contingent  on  the  alterations  of 
the  tariff  of  other  countries ;  and  expressing  to  Her  Majesty  the 
opinion  of  the  House,  that  the  great  object  of  relieving  the  com- 
mercial intercourse  between  this  countrv  and  foreign  nations  from 
all  injurious  restrictions,  would  be  best  promoted  by  regulating 
our  own  customs  duties,  as  might  be  most  suitable  to  the  financial 
and  commercial  interests  of  this  country,  without  reference  to  the 
amount  of  duties  which  foreign  powers  might  think  it  expedient 
for  their  own  interest  to  levy  on  British  goods.  But  the  govern- 
ment opposed  the  motion,  and  Mr.  Ricardo  was  defeated.  Mr. 
Gladstone  especially  defended  the  policy  of  endeavoring  to  obtain 
such  treaties.  He  did  not  wish,  he  said,  "to  be  trammelled  by 
an  abstract  proposition,  and  unless  Mr.  Ricardo  could  show  that 
there  were  no  possible  circumstances  in  which  a  commercial 
treaty  could  be  aught  other  than  evil,  he  had  no  right  to  call  upon 
the  House  to  affirm  his  resolution."  The  government,  however, 
now  practically  acted  on  the  policy  advocated  by  Mr.  Ricardo, 
and  Sir  Robert  Peel  avowed  it  frankly. 

''  I  have  no  guarantee,"  he  said,^  "  to  give  you  that  other  coun- 
tries will  immediately  follow  our  example.  I  give  you  that 
advantage  in  the  argument.  Wearied  with  our  long  and  unavail- 
ing efforts  to  enter  into  satisfactory  commercial  treaties  with  other 
nations,  we  have  resolved  at  length  to  consult  our  interests,  and 
not  to  punish  other  countries  for  the  wrong  they  do  us  in  contin- 
uing their  high  duties  upon  the  importation  of  our  products  and 
manufactures,  by  continuing  high  duties  ourselves,  encouraging 
unlawful  trade.  We  have  had  no  communication  with  any  for- 
eign government  upon  the  subject  of  these  reductions.  We  can- 
not promise  that  France  will  immediately  make  a  corresponding 


>  Hausard's  J>ebal*s,Jskn.  37, 1S46. 


THE  CORN   LAWS. 


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reduction  in  her  tariff.  I  cannot  promise  that  Russia  will  prove 
her  gratitude  to  us  for  our  reduction  of  duty  on  her  tallow  by  any 
diminution  of  her  duties.  You  may,  therefore,  say,  in  opposition 
to  the  present  plan,  '  What  is  this  superfluous  liberality  tliat  you 
are  going  to  do  away  with  all  these  duties,  and  yet  you  expect 
nothing  in  return  ? '  I  may,  perhaps,  be  told  that  many  foreign 
countries,  since  the  former  relaxation  of  duties  on  our  part  —  and 
that  would  be  perfectly  consistent  witli  the  fact  —  foreign  coun- 
tries, which  have  benefited  by  our  relaxations,  have  not  fol- 
lowed our  example  :  nay,  have  not  only  not  followed  our  example, 
but  have  actually  applied  to  the  importation  of  British  goods 
higher  rates  o{  duties  than  formerly.  I  quite  admit  it.  I  give 
you  all  the  benefit  of  that  argument.  I  rely  upon  tliat  fact 
as  conclusive  proof  of  the  policy  of  the  course  we  are  pursu- 
ing. It  is  a  fact,  that  other  countries  have  not  followed  our 
example,  and  have  levied  higher  duties  in  some  cases  upon  our 
goods.  But  what  has  been  the  result  upon  the  amount  of  your 
exports.^  You  have  defied  the  regulations  of  these  countries. 
Your  export  trade  is  greatly  increased.  Now,  why  is  that  so.^ 
Partly  because  of  your  acting  without  wishing  to  avail  yourselves 
of  their  assistance  ;  partly  because  of  the  smuggler,  not  engaged 
by  you,  in  so  many  continental  countries,  whom  the  strict  regula- 
tions and  the  triple  duties  which  are  to  prevent  the  ingress  of 
foreign  goods  have  raised  up  ;  and  partly,  perhaps,  because  these 
very  precautions  against  the  ingress  of  your  commodities  are  a  bur- 
den, and  the  taxation  increasing  the  cost  of  production,  disqualify 
the  foreigner  from  competing  with  you.  But  your  exports, 
whatever  be  the  tariff  of  other  countries,  or  however  apparent 
the  ingratitude  with  which  they  have  treated  you,  your  export 
trade  has  been  constantly  increasing.  By  the  remission  of  your 
duties  upon  the  raw  material,  by  inciting  your  skill  and  imlustrv, 
by  competition  with  foreign  goods,  you  have  defied  your  compet- 
itors in  foreign  markets,  and  you  have  been  enabled  to  exclude 
them.  Nothwithstanding  their  hostile  tariffs  the  declared  value 
of  British  exports  has  increased  above  JE  10,000,000  during  the 
period  which  has  elapsed  since  the  relaxation  of  duties  on  your 
part.  I  say,  therefore,  to  you,  that  these  hostile  tariffs,  so  far 
from  being  an  objection  to  continuing  your  policy,  are  an  argu- 
ment in  its  favor.  But,  depend  upon  it,  your  example  will  ulti- 
mately prevail.  When  your  example  could  be  quoted  in  favor 
of  restriction,  it  was  quoted  largely.     When  your  cxamiile  can 


i;ii 


1 82 


SELECTIONS. 


5  i| 


ili^ 


be  quoted  in  favor  of  relaxation  as  conducive  to  your  interest,  it 
may,  perhaps,  excite  at  first  in  foreign  governments,  in  foreign 
boards  of  trade,  but  little  interest  or  feeling ;  but  the  sense  of  the 
people  of  the  great  body  of  consumers  will  prevail ;  and  in  spite 
of  the  desire  of  government  and  boards  of  trade  to  raise  revenue 
by  restrictive  duties,  reason  and  common  sense  will  induce  relax- 
ation of  high  duties.     That  is  my  firm  belief."     .... 

Part  IV.  — Chap.  4. 

The  Anti-Corn  Law  agitation  was  one  of  those  movements 
which,  being  founded  on  right  principles,  and  in  harmony  with 
the  interest  of  the  masses,  was  sure  to  gather  fresh  strength  by 
any  event  aflecting  the  supply  of  food.  It  was  popular  to  attempt 
to  reverse  a  policy  which  aimed  almost  exclusively  to  benefit  one 
class  of  society.  It  was  well  known  that  the  League  wanted  to 
outset  an  economic -fallacy,  and  that  they  wished  to  relieve  the 
people  from  a  great  bui'den.  And  as  time  elapsed  and  the  sound- 
ness of  the  principles  propounded  by  the  League  at  their  public 
meetings  was  more  and  more  appreciated,  their  triumph  became 
certain,  and  Her  Majesty's  government  itself  began  to  see  that  it 
was  no  longer  possible  to  treat  the  agitation  either  by  a  silent 
passiveness,  or  by  expressed  contempt.  The  economic  theorists 
had  the  mass  of  the  people  with  them.  Their  gatherings  were 
becoming  more  and  more  enthusiastic.  And  even  amidst  con- 
servative landowners  there  were  not  a  few  enlightened  and  lib- 
eral minds  who  had  already,  silently  at  leas*^,  espoused  the  new 
ideas.  No  change  certainly  could  be  expect.'d  so  long  as  bread 
was  cheap,  and  labor  abundant.  But  when  a  deficient  harvest 
and  a  blight  in  the  potato-crop  crippled  the  resources  of  the  peo- 
ple and  raised  grain  to  famine  prices,  the  voice  of  the  League 
acquired  greater  power  and  influence.  Hitherto  they  had  re- 
ceived hundreds  of  pounds.  Now,  thousands  were  sent  in  to 
support  the  agitation.  A  quarter  of  a  million  was  readily  con- 
tributed. Nor  were  the  contributors  Lancashire  mill-owners 
exclusively.  Among  them  were  merchants  and  bankers,  men  of 
heart  and  men  of  mind,  the  poor  laborer,  and  the  peer  of  the 
realm.  The  fervid  oratory  of  Bright,  the  demonstrative  and 
argumentative  reasoning  of  Cobden,  the  more  popular  appeals  of 
Fox,  Rawlins,  and  other  platform  speakers,  filled  the  newspaper 
press,  and  were  eagerly  read.    And  when  Parliament  dissolved  in 


re- 
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con- 
ners 
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the 
and 
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THE   CORN   LAWS. 


183 


Aiijjust,  1S45,  even  Sir  Robert  Peel  showed  some  slight  symp- 
toms of  a  conviction  that  the  days  of  the  corn  laws  were  num- 
bered. Every  day,  in  truth,  brought  home  to  his  mind  a  stronger 
need  for  action,  and  as  the  ravages  of  the  potato  disease  pro- 
gressed he  saw  that  all  further  resistance  would  be  absolutely 
dangerous. 

A  cabinet  council  was  held  on  October  31  of  that  year,  to  con- 
sult as  to  what  was  to  be  done,  and  at  an  adjourned  meeting  on 
November  5,  Sir  Robert  Peel  intimated  his  intention  to  issi.e  an 
order  in  council  remitting  the  duty  on  grain  in  bond  to  one  shill- 
ing, and  opening  the  ports  for  the  admission  of  all  species  of  grain 
at  a  smaller  rate  of  duty,  until  a  day  to  be  named  in  the  order ;  to 
call  Parliament  together  on  the  27th  inst.,  in  order  to  ask  for  an 
indemnity,  and  a  sanction  of  the  order  by  law;  and  to  submit  to 
Parliament,  immediately  after  the  recess,  a  modification  of  the 
existing  law,  including  the  admission  at  a  nominal  duty,  of  Indian 
corn  and  of  British  colonial  corn.  A  serious  difference  of  opinion, 
however,  was  found  to  exist  in  the  cabinet,  on  the  question  brought 
before  them  ;  the  only  ministers  supporting  such  measures  being 
the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  Sir  James  Graham,  and  Mr.  Sidney  Her- 
bert. Xor  was  it  easy  to  induce  the  other  members  to  listen  to 
reason.  And  though,  at  a  subsequent  meeting,  held  on  November 
28,  Sir  Robert  Peel  so  far  secured  a  majority  in  his  favor,  it  was 
evident  that  the  cabinet  was  too  divided  to  justify  him  in  liringing 
forward  his  measures,  and  he  decided  upon  resigning  office. 

His  resolution  to  that  effect  having  been  communicated  to  the 
Qiieen,  Her  Majesty  summoned  Lord  John  Russell  to  form  a 
cabinet ;  and,  to  smooth  his  path.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  with  character- 
istic frankness,  sent  a  memorandum  to  Her  Majesty,  embodying  a 
promise  to  give  him  his  support.  But  Lord  John  Russell  failed 
in  his  efforts,  and  the  Qiieen  had  no  alternative  but  to  recall  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  and  give  him  full  power  to  carry  out  his  measuK-«5. 
It  was  under  such  circumstances  that  Parliament  was  called  for 
January  22,  1846,  and  on  January  27  the  government  plan  was 
propounded  before  a  crowded  house.  It  was  not  an  immediate 
repeal  of  the  corn  laws  that  Sir  Robert  Peel  recommended.  He 
proposed  a  temporary  protection  for  three  years,  till  Februarv  i , 
1849,  imposing  a  scale  during  that  time  ranging  from  4s.,  when 
the  price  of  wheat  should  be  50s.  per  quarter  and  upward,  and 
los.  when  the  price  should  be  under  48s.  per  quarter,  and  that 
after  that  period  all  grain  should  be  admitted  at  the  uniform  duty 


tltliii! 


'.  •,  »  . 


I  to 


:?■ 


ii 


184 


SELECTIONS. 


1^ 


m 


r  ■    I  ■: 


of  IS.  per  quarter.  The  me.isiire,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
was  received  in  a  very  different  manner  by  the  political  parties  in 
botii  houses  of  Parliament.  There  was  trenson  in  the  conserva- 
tive camp,  and  keen  and  bitter  was  the  opposition  they  ofVered  to 
the  chief  of  their  party.  For  twelve  nights  speaker  after  speaker 
indulged  in  personal  recriminations.  They  recalled  to  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  memory  the  speeches  he  had  made  in  defence  of  the  corn 
laws.  And  as  to  his  assertion  that  he  had  changed  his  mind  they 
denied  his  right  to  do  so.  Mr.  Colquhoun  "  wondered  that  Sir 
Robert  could  say,  '  I  have  changed  my  opinion,  and  there  is  an 
end  of  it.'  But  there  was  not  an  end  of  it.  His  right  hon. 
friend  must  not  forget  the  laws  by  which  the  words  of  men  of 
genius  —  whether  orators  or  poets  —  are  bound  up  with  them. 
His  riglit  hon.  friend's  words  could  not  thus  pass  away.  They 
were  winged  shafts  that  pierced  many  minds.  They  remained 
after  tlie  occasion  which  produced  them  passed  away.  His 
right  hon.  friend  must  remember  that  the  words  which  he 
had  used  adhered  to  the  memory,  moulded  men's  sentiments, 
guided  public  opinion.  He  must  recollect  that  the  armor  of 
proof  which  he  had  laid  aside,  and  the  lance  which  he  had 
wiekied,  and  with  which  he  had  pierced  many  an  encumbered 
opponent,  remained  weighty  and  entire.  Greatly  did  he  wish 
that  his  right  hon.  friend  were  again  on  this  side  to  wield 
them  —  that  he  were  here  to  lead  their  ranks  and  guide  them  by 
his  prowess.  But  if  not,  they  retained  at  least  his  arms ;  these 
lay  at  their  feet,  strewed  all  around  them,  an  arsenal  of  power." 
Petulant  remonstrances  like  these  were  of  course  of  little  avail. 
Sir  Robert  Peel  and  Mr.  Cobden  were  ready  to  meet  every  chal- 
lenge, and  to  refute  every  argument  with  their  unanswerable  logic 
of  facts.  And  when  the  opposition  endeavored  to  throw  all  the 
responsibility  of  a  measure  of  such  a  character  on  the  prime 
minister,  Mr.  Cobden  besought  them  to  turn  from  the  will  of  one 
individual  to  those  laws  economic  and  divine  which  seemed  to 
impose  the  duty  of  laying  wide  open  the  door  for  the  importation 
of  food.  "  Oh,  then,  divest  the  future  prime  minister  of  this 
country  of  that  odious  task  of  having  to  reconcile  rival  interests ; 
divest  the  office,  if  ever  you  would  have  a  sagacious  man  in  power 
as  pri;ne  minister,  divest  it  of  the  responsibility  of  having  to  find 
food  for  the  people  !  May  you  never  find  a  prime  minister  again 
to  undertake  that  awful  responsibility  !  That  responsibility  belongs 
to  the  law  of  nature  :  as  Burke  said,  *  it  belongs  to  God  atone  to 


THE   CORN   LAWS. 


185 


regfulate  the  supply  of  the  food  of  nations.*  .  .  .  We  have 
set  an  example  to  the  world  in  all  ages;  we  have  given  them  the 
representative  system.  The  very  rules  and  regulations  of  this 
House  have  been  taken  as  the  model  for  every  representative  as- 
sembly throughout  the  whole  civilized  world  ;  and  having  besides 
given  them  the  example  of  a  free  press,  and  civil  and  religious 
freedom,  and  every  institution  that  belongs  to  freedom  and  civiliza- 
tion, we  are  now  about  giving  a  still  greater  example  ;  we  are 
going  to  set  the  example  of  making  industry  free — to  set  the 
example  of  giving  the  whole  world  every  advantage  of  clime  and 
latitude  and  situation,  relying  ourselves  on  the  freedom  of  our 
industry.  Yes,  we  are  going  to  teach  the  world  that  other  lesson. 
Don't  think  there  is  anything  selfish  in  this,  or  anything  at  all 
discordant  with  Christian  principles.  I  can  prove  that  we  ad- 
vocate nothing  but  what  is  agreeable  to  the  highest  behests  of 
Christianity.  To  buy  in  the  cheapest  market  and  sell  in  the 
dearest.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  maxim?  It  means  that  you 
take  the  article  which  you  have  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and 
with  it  obtain  from  others  that  of  which  they  have  the  most  to 
spare,  so  giving  to  mankind  the  means  of  enjoying  the  fullest 
abundance  of  earth's  goods,  and  in  doing  so  carrying  out  to  the 
fullest  extent  the  Christian  doctrine  of  '  Do  ye  to  all  men  as  ye 
would  they  should  do  unto  you.'  "  The  passing  of  the  measure 
was,  however,  more  than  certain,  and  after  a  debate  of  twelve 
nights'  duration  on  Mr.  Miles'  amendment,  the  government  ob- 
tained a  majority  of  97  ;  337  having  voted  for  the  motion  and  240 
against  it.  And  from  that  evening  the  corn  law  may  be  said  to 
have  expired.^  Not  a  day  too  soon,  certainly,  when  we  consider 
the  straitened  resources  of  the  country  as  regards  the  first  article 
of  food,  caused  not  only  by  the  bad  crop  of  grain,  but  by  the 
serious  loss  of  the  potato  crop,  especially  in  Ireland. 

Ireland  had  often  grievously  suffered  from  social  and  political 
wrongs,  from  absenteeism  and  repeal  cries,  from  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  bigotry,  from  Orangeism  and  Ribbonism,  from 
threatening  notices  and  mid-day  assassinations,  but  seldom  has  her 
cup  of  adversity  been  so  brimful  as  in  1845  and  1846,  from  the 
failure  of  the  potato  crop.  Though  comparatively  of  recent  intro- 
duction,— the  first  potato  root  having  been  imported  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  in  1610, — potatoes  had  for  years  constituted  a  large  propor- 

>  9  and  10  Vict.  c.  m,  suspended  by  lo  and  1 1  Vict.  c.  i . 


!i 


Hi; 

i 

'  *i  ■ 

;■■'; 

Ml! 

\v\ 

II  I 


iii-i::.:')'-" 


*!•' 

1^' 


1 86 


SELECTIONS. 


if' 

Ml  Ml 


( ■;.'  I, 


tioii  of  the  food  of  the  people  of  Ireland.  A  considerable  acreapje 
of  land  was  devoted  to  that  culture,  and  an  acre  of  potatoes  would 
feed  niore  than  double  the  number  of  individuals  that  can  be  fed 
from  an  acre  of  va  heat.  Such  cultivation  was,  moreover,  very 
attractive  to  small  holders  of  land.  It  cost  little  labor.  It  entailed 
scarcely  any  expense,  and  little  or  no  care  was  bestowed  on  it, 
since  the  people  were  quite  satisfied  with  the  coarsest  and  most 
prolific  kind,  called  lumpers  or  horse  potatoes.  Nor  was  it  the 
food  of  the  people  only  in  Ireland.  Pigs  and  poultry  shared  the 
potatoes  with  the  peasant's  family,  and  often  became  the  inmates 
of  his  cabin  also.  One  great  evil  connected  with  potato  culture 
is,  that  whilst  the  crop  is  precarious  and  uncertain,  it  cannot  be 
stored  up.  The  surplus  of  one  abundant  year  is  quite  unfit  to  use 
in  the  next,  and  owing  to  its  great  bulk  it  cannot  even  be  trans- 
ported from  place  to  place.  Moreover,  once  used  to  a  description 
of  food  so  extremely  cheap,  no  retrenchment  is  possible,  and  when 
blight  comes  and  the  crop  is  destroyed  the  people  seem  doomed 
to  absolute  starvation.  This,  unfortunately,  was  the  case  in  1S22 
and  I  S3 1.  In  those  years  public  subscriptions  were  got  up,  king's 
letters  issued,  balls  and  bazaars  held,  and  public  money  granted. 
I?iit  in  1845  and  1846  the  calamity  was  greater  than  any  pre- 
viously experienced. 

The  potato  disease  first  manifested  itself  in  1845.  The  early 
crop,  dug  in  September  and  October,  which  consists  of  one-sixth 
of  the  whole,  nearly  escaped  ;  but  the  whole  of  the  late  crop,  the 
people's  crop,  dug  in  December  and  January,  was  tainted  before 
arriving  at  maturity.  In  that  year  there  was  a  full  average  crop 
of  wheat.  Oats  and  barley  were  abundant,  and  turnips,  carrots, 
and  greens,  including  hay,  were  sufficient.  Yet  on  the  continent 
the  rye  crop  failed,  and  the  potato  disease  appeared  in  Belgium, 
Holland,  France,  and  the  west  of  Germany.  On  the  whole  the 
supply  of  grain  was  fair  during  the  year  1845,  and  prices  ruled 
moderately  high.  In  1846,  however,  blight  attacked  the  potatoes 
with  even  greater  fury  and  suddenness  in  the  month  of  July,  and 
it  attacked  both  the  early  crop  and  the  people's  crop,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  wheat  crop  proved  under  an  average.  Barley  and 
oats  were  also  deficient,  and  the  rye  crop  again  failed  on  the  con- 
tinent. In  the  previous  year  some  counties  in  Ireland  escaped 
the  potato  disease,  but  this  year  the  whole  country  suffered  alike. 
The  loss  was  indeed  very  great.  Probably  Xi3,ooo,c)00  was  a 
low  estimate,  and  from  4,000,000  to  5,000,000  quarters  of  grain 


1J 


\y\ 


THE  CORN   LAWS. 


187 


and 
:on- 
ped 
ike. 
IS  a 
rain 


at  least  would  be  required  to  replace  it.  As  miyht  he  expected 
the  luws  of  such  a  disaster  had  a  fearful  ctVect  throu^jhout  tlic 
country,  and  the  utter  helplessness  of  many  millions  of  our  fellow- 
suhjects  became  a  subject  of  the  greatest  anxiety. 

As  soon  as  the  potato  disease  appeared  in   1845,  government 
took  tlie  step  of  appointing  Professors  Kane,  Lindley,  and  Play- 
fair  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  disease,  and  to  suggest  means 
for  preserving  the  stock,  but  this  was  of  little  avail.     Uiged  by 
necessity,  the  government  even  stepped  out  of  its  province,  and 
sent  orders  to  the  United  States  for  the  purchase  of  cCi(X>,ooo 
worth  of  Indian  corn,  established  depots  in  ditferent  parts,  and 
formed  relief  committees.     But  this  was  nothing  compared  with 
what  became  necessary  to  be  :lone  in   1846.     Public  works  were 
then  commenced  on  a  large  scde,  giving  employment  to  some  five 
hundred  thousand  persons.    The  poor  law  was  put  in  action  with 
unparalleled  vigor,  so  that  in  Jnly,  1S47,  as  many  as  three  millions 
of  persons  were  actually  receiving  separate  rations.     A  loan  of 
£8,000,000  was  contracted  by  government,  expressly  to  supply 
such  wants,  and  every  step  was  taken  by  two  successive  administra- 
tions—  Sir  Robert  Peel's  and  Lord   John  Russell's  —  to  alleviate 
the  sufl'erings  of  the  people.     Nor  was  private  benevolence  lack- 
ing.   The  Society  of  Friends,  always  ready  in  acts  of  charity  and 
love,  was  foremost  in  the  good  work.    A  British  Association  was 
formed  for   the  relief  of  Ireland,  including  Jones  Loyd   (Lord 
Overstone),  Thomas  Baring,  and  Baron  Rothschild.     A  Qiieen's 
letter  was  issued.     A  day  of  general  fast  and  humiliation  was 
held,  and  subscriptions  were  received  from  almost  every  quarter 
of  the  world.    The  Qiieen's  letter  alone  produced  £171,533.    The 
British  Association  collected  £263,000 ;  the  Society  of  Friends, 
£43,000;    and   £168,000   more   were    intrusted    to   the   Dublin 
Society  of  Friends.     The  Sultan  of  Turkey  sent  £1,000.     The 
Qiieen  gave  £2,000,  and  £500  more  to  the  British  Ladies'  cloth- 
ing fund.    Prince  Albert  gave  £500.   The  National  Club  collected 
£17,930.     America  sent  two  ships  of  war,  the  "  Jamestown  "  and 
"Macedonian,"  full  of  provisions;  and  the  Irish  residents  in  the 
United  States  sent  upwards  of  £200,000  to  their  relatives  to  allow 
them  to  emigrate.    But  with  all  this,  the  people  passed  through  a 
most  eventful  catastrophe.     One-third  of  the  people,  at  least,  was 
reduced  to  destitution.     A  large  number  died  by  fever  and  pesti- 
lence.     Such  as    could  raise  the    requisite  funds  emigrated  to 
America.     Crowds  of  emaciated  and  famished  people^flocked  by 


III 
IJt 


r    I  ■ 

ii 


!5i 


188 


SELECTIONS. 


lii 


1, 


^!^t  t; 


every  availaMe  means  to  Enj^lisli  ports.  The  rest  were  kept 
alive  l)y  employment  on  public  works,  by  private  local  charity, 
by  local  subscriptions,  by  contributions  from  all  parts  of  the 
World,  and  by  the  most  extensive  system  of  gratuitous  distribution 
of  food  vvhicli  history  aHbrds  any  record  of. 

The  price  of  wheat  and  other  grain  did  not  rise  much  at  first. 
Indeed,  for  a  lengthened  time  but  faint  conception  was  entert.nined 
of  any  want  of  foreign  grain.  The  potato  failure  was  compara- 
tively a  new  thing,  and  few  imagined  that  it  would  act  powerfidly 
on  the  consumption  of  grain.  In  1845  the  average  price  of  wheat 
was  no  more  than  50s.  iid.  per  imperial  quarter,  it  having  risen 
from  a  minimum  of 45s.  3d.  in  March  to  5SS.  lod.  in  November; 
whilst  the  average  price  of  barley  was  31s.  8d.,  and  of  oats  2Js.  6d. 
In  1S46,  also,  the  average  price  of  wheat  was  54s.  8d.,  the  price 
having  ruled  first  55s.  6d.,  falling  to  46s.  3d.  in  August,  and 
rising  to  60s.  yd.  in  November,  whilst  the  average  price  of  barley 
was  32s.  8d.,  and  of  oats  33s.  8d.  But  in  1847  a  sudden  great 
rise  took  place.  The  price  of  wheat  rose  from  an  average  of  69s. 
I  id.  in  January  to  an  average  of  92s.  lod.  in  June;  thf^  price  of 
barley  was  50s.  2d.  in  January,  53s.  5d.  in  February,  and  52s. 
I  id.  in  May  and  June;  and  oats,  commencing  at  29s.  6d.  in 
January  rose  to  34s.  2d.  in  Jime.  In  Jidy,  however,  a  sudden 
change  took  place  by  the  concurrent  action  of  large  importations 
and  excellent  prospects  of  the  approaching  harvest.  From  June 
to  December  wheat  fell  from  92s.  lod.  to  53s.  3d. ;  barley  from 
52s.  I  id.  to  30s.  9(1.;  and  oats  from  34s.  2d.  to  21s.  lod.  per 
imperial  quarter.  The  importation  of  grain  had  never  been 
so  large  as  in  this  year.  In  former  years  1,000,000  or  2,000,000 
quarters  was  the  maximum,  but  in  1846  the  imports  amounted 
to  4,752,174  quarters  of  grain  and  meal,  and  in  1847  to  as  much 
as  11,912,864  quarters,  the  greatest  increase  having  taken  place 
from  Russia  and  America.  Then,  indeed,  the  nation  realized 
that  the  corn  law  could  not  be  maintained  any  longer.  Our 
dependence  on  foreign  grain  became  very  great,  and  thankful 
indeed  we  were  that,  by  the  wisdom  and  foresight  of  our  legis- 
lators, the  last  corn  law  and  the  navigation  law  were  alike  sus- 
pended, and  our  ports  were  opened  to  the  supply  of  food  from 
any  quarter  of  the  globe.     .     .     . 


THE  NEW   GOLD. 


189 


X. 


THE    NEW  GOLD. 

From  Cairnes'  Essays  in  Political  Economv. 
Essay  II.  — Tiik  Cui-ksk  of  Defheciation. 

No  one,  I  tliink,  who  has  attended  to  the  discussions  occasioned 
by  the  recent  gold  (Hscoveries,  can  have  failed  to  o!)scrve.  on  the 
part  of  a  large  number  of  those  who  engage  in  them,  a  strange 
unwillingness  to  recognize,  amongst  the  inevitable  consequences 
of  those  events,  a  fall  in  the  value  of  money.  I  say,  a  strange  un- 
willingness, because  we  do  not  find  similar  doubts  to  exist  in  any 
correspomling  case.  Witii  res()ect  to  all  other  commodities,  it  is 
not  denied  that  whatever  facilitates  production  promotes  cheap- 
ness ;  that  less  will  be  given  for  objects  when  they  can  be  at- 
tained with  less  trouble  and  sacrifice:  it  is  not  denied,  cj^.,,  that 
the  steam-engine,  the  spinning-jenny,  and  the  mule  have  lowered 
the  value  of  our  manufactiues ;  that  railways  and  steamships 
have  lessened  the  expense  of  travelling,  or  that  the  superior  agri- 
cultural resources  of  foreign  countries,  made  available  through 
free-trade,  keep  down  the  price  of  our  agricultural  products.  It 
is  only  in  the  case  of  the  precious  metals  that  it  is  supposed  that  a 
diminution  of  cost  has  no  tendency  to  lower  value,  and  that,  how- 
ever rapidly  supply  may  be  increased,  a  given  quantity  will  con- 
tinue to  command  the  same  quantity  of  other  things  as  before. 

Amongst  persons  unacquainted  with  economic  science,  the  prev- 
alence of  this  opinion  is  doubtless  principally  due  to  those  ambigu- 
ities of  language,  and  consequent  confusion  of  ideas,  with  which 
our  monetary  phraseology,  unfortunately,  abounds,  man_,  of  which 
tend  to  encourage  the  notion  of  some  peculiar  and  constant  sta- 
bility in  the  value  of  the  precious  metals.  Thi"^  the  expression 
"a  fixed  price  of  gold"  has  led  some  people  to  imagine  that  the 
possibility  of  a  depreciation  of  this  metal  is  precluded  by  our  mint 
regulations.  The  double  sense,  again,  of  the  phrase,  *' value  of 
money,"  has  countenanced  the  same  error ;  for  people,  perceiving 
the  rate  of  interest  (which  is  the  measure  of  the  value  of  money,  in 
one  sense  of  the  phrase)  remaining  high,  while  the  supply  of  gold 


III 
l<i 


ti' :  H 


;?* 


]    f    \ 


190 


SKMXTKmS. 


Ill 


■:ih: 


i\  1; 


u 


WHS  rnpitlly  i-.UMvasinfr,  —  piMvrivin^  inonrv  still  si'iirco  su'conliiig 
to  this  iriti'iion,  notwillisliindin}^  tlu'  inriiMsr  in  its  pnxiiutiiMi,  — 
Ikivi'  itskiMl  wlu'tlior  this  did  not  iillonl  a  prosniuption  thai  its 
vahu'  would  ho  ponnatuMitly  jnvsiMArd  iVon)  dcptiH'ialion  ;  a  hank 
rato  ol' tlisiinmt  at  (>,  S,  in  10  prr  cent.,  as  thry  foinarkfd,  aHoid- 
in^  Nniall  indication  of  ni«)ncy  hi<con)in<;  too  ahnndant. 

It  appeals  to  nio,  howcvrr,  that  nnscomoplions  irspoclin;:;  the 
intluiMuo  ot"  an  iniTcascd  snpply  of  gold  upon  its  vahic,  and  upon 
j;;iMUMal  piicfs,  art*  hy  no  means  conlined  to  the  elass  who  eonid 
l>e  misled  hv  sueh  fallacies,  hut  thai  even  amonjjf  economists  (at 
least  amotij^;  economists  in  this  conntry)  we  may  ohserve  the 
same  indisposilii)n  t«)  believe  in  an  actnal  and  pro<j;resKive  depre- 
ciation of  this  metal.  It  is  not,  indeed,  denied  —  at  least,  I  pre- 
snme  it  is  not  denied  —  l»y  any  one  pietendin<j;  to  econoniic  knowl- 
cdj^e,  that  the  enlai"<;etl  piodnctiim  of  p>hl  now  takin<:^  place  has 
a  tenilency  to  K)wer  its  value  ;  hnl  it  seems  lo  he  very  generally 
snpposed  that  the  same  canse  —  the  increased  gold  production  — 
lias  the  ellect.  throngh  its  intlnence  t)M  trade,  of  calling  into  oper- 
ation s»)  many  tendencies  of  a  contrary  nature,  that,  on  the  whole, 
the  de|ireciatit)n  must  proceed  with  extreme  slowness,  the  results 
being  disperseil  over  a  period  so  great  as  to  take  from  thenj  any 
practical  importance,  ami  that,  at  all  events,  up  to  the  present 
time  no  sensible  efVect  upon  prices  proceeding  from  this  cause  has 
become  perceptible. 

The  existence  of  this  opinion  among  economists  is,  T  apprehend, 
to  be  attributed  in  some  degree  to  the  circumstance  that  so  few 
have  taken  the  pains  to  compare  the  actual  prices  of  the  present 
time  with  those  of  the  period  previous  to  the  gold  discoveries,  but 
much  more  to  the  fact  that  the  character  of  the  new  agency  and 
the  moile  of  its  operation  are  not,  in  general,  correctly  conceived. 
I  believe  the  most  general  opinion  with  reference  to  the  action  of 
an  increased  supply  of  money  upon  its  value  is,  that  it  is  uniform, 
takes  place,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  same  degree  in  relation  to  all 
commodities  and  services,  and  that  therefore  prices,  so  far  as  they 
are  influenced  by  an  increase  of  money,  must  exhibit  a  uniform 
advance  ;'  and,  no  such  uniformity  being  obsened  in  the  actual 

*  "  In  relrttion  to  the  (nrtuence  of  the  gold  discoveries  on  the  prices  of  affrictiltural  produce, 
it  is  plain  that  it  could  he  only  the  same  upon  them  as  upon  those  of  nny  other  class  of  coin- 
mi'Hiities,  //■  si  hat  cauifd  a  rist  of  toper  rent,  in  their  favor,  it  must  have  caused  a  rise  of 
to  per  cent,  in  everything  else."  Times  City  article,  August  6,  1853.  And  the  same  as- 
sumption,  either  expressed  or  implied,  runs  through  most  of  Uie  reasoning  which  I  have 
Mca  on  this  question. 


ih 


THK  Ni;w  CO  1. 1). 


191 


niovfmnit  of  prices,  tlic  infcicncc  li.'is  ixtt  iitin.'itnr.illy  ln-eri 
(It'iiwii  thill  HiK'li  ciili.'Mucinrnt  .'is  lets  tiikc-ii  pl.ict*  is  not  due  to 
tins  iiidsc  ;  tli.it  it  is  not  nionry  wliicli  lias  falli-n,  hut  coniiiioditics 
wliicli  liavf  risen  in  value. 

Now  I  am  (|iiite  prepared  to  admit  that  an  increase  of  money 
lends  ultimately,  where  the  c(»nditions  of  production  remain  in 
other  respects  the  same,  t«»  alVecl  the  prices  of  all  c  (»mmoditieH 
iind  servites  in  an  e<pial  de;^ree  ;  hiil  hefore  this  result  is  attained 
a  period  of  time,  lonj^er  or  shorter  accordin;^  to  tlw;  amount  of  the 
augmentation  and  the  j^eneral  circumstances  of  commerce,  must 
elapse.  In  the  present  instance  the  additions  which  are  heinj^ 
made  to  the  monetary  systems  f)f  the  world  arc  upon  an  enormous 
sc.'ile,  and  the  disturhance  ellccted  in  the  relation  of  ])rices  is  pro- 
portionally f^reat.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  very  possible 
that  the  ine(|nalities  resulliiij^  may  not  find  theit  correction 
throughout  the  whole  pi;riod  of  j)ro^ressive  depreciation  ;  a 
period  which,  even  with  our  present  facilities  of  production  and 
distribution,  may  easily  extend  over  some  thirty  or  forty  years. 
Duriii}^  this  transitionary  term  the  action  of  the  new  ^^old  will 
not  be  uniform,  hut  partial.  Certain  classes  of  commodities  and 
services  will  be  alVected  much  more  powerfully  tlian  others. 
Prices  jj[enerally  will  rise,  but  with  une(|ual  steps.  Nevertheless 
there  will  be  in  these  apparent  irrej^ularities  nothing  either  capri- 
cious or  abnormal.  The  movement  will  be  j^overned  throuf^hout 
its  course  by  economic  laws  ;  and  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  present 
iiupiiry  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  these  laws  and  the  mode  of  their 
operation. 

The  process  by  which  an  increased  production  of  f^old  operates 
in  depreciating  the  value  of  the  metal  and  raising  general  prices 
appears  to  be  twofoKI :  it  acts,  first,  directly  through  the  medium 
of  an  enlarged  money  demand,  and  secondly,  indirectly  through 
a  contraction  of  supply.' 

When  an  increased  amount  of  money  comes  into  existence, 
there  is,  of  course,  an  increased  expenditure  on  the  part  of  those 
into  whose  possession  it  comes,  the  immediate  eflect  of  which  is 
to  raise  the  prices  of  all  commodities  which  fall  under  its  influ- 
ence.    It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  advance  in   price  which 


-n 


'  Accordinjf  to  Mr.  Newmarch  ("  History  of  Prices,"  vol.  vi.,  pp.  324-225)  the  depreciation 
of  money  may  occur  by  a  process  which  is  neither  of  these,  when  money  operates  upon 
prices  neither  through  demand  nor  ye*,  through  supply,  but  "  by  reason  of  autjmented  quan- 
tity."   I  must  confess  myself  wholly  unable  to  conceive  the  process  here  indicated. 


r 


( 

' 

r; 

;;t' 

4 

ill 

•L' 

r 


m 

i     i\ 


192 


SELECTIONS. 


a 


t  II 

lit 


^^W? 


m-v^ 


thus  occurs  will  be,  in  its  full  extent,  temporary  only ;  since  it  is 
immediately  followed  by  an  extension  of  production  to  meet  the 
increased  demand,  and  this  must  again  lead  to  a  fall  in  price. 
Some  writers  who  have  treated  this  question,  observing  this 
effect,  have  somewhat  hastily  concluded  that  under  the  operation 
of  this  principle  the  level  of  prices  would  never  permanently  be 
altered,  since,  as  they  have  urged,  each  addition  to  the  circulating 
medium  forming  the  basis  of  a  corresponding  increase  of  demand, 
gives  a  corresponding  impetus  to  production ;  every  increase  of 
money  thus  calls  into  existence  an  equivalent  augmentation  in  the 
quantity  of  things  to  be  circulated  ;  and  the  proportion  between 
the  two  not  being  ultimately  disturbed,  prices,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, will  return  to  their  original  level.*  The  least  reflection, 
however,  will  show  that  this  doctrine  has  been  suggested  by  a 
very  superficial  view  of  the  phenomena. 

For  —  not  to  press  the  obvious  reductio  ad  absurdum  to  which 
this  argument  is  liable  —  how  is  this  extension  of  production  to  be 
carried  out?  In  the  last  resort  it  is  only  possible  through  a  more 
extended  employment  of  labor.  But,  when  once  all  the  hands  in 
a  community  are  employed,  the  effect  of  a  further  competition  for 
labor  can  only  be  to  raise  wages  ;  and,  wages  once  being  generally 
raised,  it  is  plain  (supposing  all  other  things  to  remain  the  same) 
that  profits  can  only  be  maintained  by  a  corresponding  elevation 
of  prices.  When,  therefore,  the  influence  of  the  new  money  has 
once  reached  wages,  it  is  evident  that  there  will  be  no  motive  to 
continue  production  to  that  point  which  would  bring  prices  to 
their  former  level,  and  that  consequently  an  elevation  of  price 
must,  at  this  stage  of  the  proceeding,  be  permanently  estab- 
lished. 

So  far  as  regards  articles  which  fall  directly  under  the  action 
of  the  new  money.  With  respect  to  those  which  do  not  happen 
to  come  within  the  range  of  the  new  demand,  price  is,  I  conceive, 
in  their  case  raised  by  an  indirect  action  of  the  new  money  in 
curtailing  supply. 

'  [It  may  be  worth  while  to  preserve  a  specimen  of  the  sort  of  Political  Economy  that  was 
talked  and  written  on  this  subject  some  fifteen  years  ago.  A  leading  article  in  the  Exam- 
iner (December  13,  1856)  contains  the  following:  "  The  additional  supply  of  the  precious 
metals  has  stimulated  the  industry  of  the  world,  and  in  fact  produced  an  amount  of  wealth 
in  representing  which  they  have  been  themselves,  as  it  were,  absorbed."  ..."  But  the 
produce  of  the  Australian  and  Californian  gold,  .is  well  as  that  of  silver  which  has  accom- 
panied  it,  is  likely  to  go  on ;  and  it  may  be  asked  if  this  must  not  in  course  of  time  produce 
depreciation.  We  tnink  it  certainly  is  not  likely  to  do  so;  .  .  .  on  the  contrary,  it  will 
surely  be  absorbed  by  increasing  wealth  and  population  as  fast  as  it  is  produced."  J 


THE  NEW   GOLD. 


193 


Wc  have  seen  that  the  efiect  of  the  eflbrts  to  extend  production 
in  the  directions  indicated  by  the  new  expenditure  must  be  to 
raise  wages ;  but  it  is  plainly  impossible  that  wages  should  con- 
tinue to  advance  in  any  of  the  principal  departments  of  industry 
•without  afil'cting  their  rates  in  the  rest ;  whence  it  will  happen 
that,  under  the  operation  of  the  new  monetary  influence,  some  de- 
partments of  industry  will  experience  a  rise  of  wages  before  any 
advance  takes  place  in  the  prices  of  the  new  commodities  produced 
by  the  laborers  whose  wages  have  risen.  It  is  evident  that  in  all 
departments  of  industry  which  may  be  thus  affected  —  in  which 
prices  will  not  have  shared  the  advance  which  has  aflected  wages 
—  profits  will  fall  below  the  general  average  ;  the  effect  of  which 
must  be  to  discourage  production  until,  by  a  contraction  in  the 
supply  of  the  articles  thus  furnished,  the  price  shall  be  raised  up 
to  that  point  which  will  place  the  producers  on  the  same  footing 
of  advantage  as  those  in  other  walks  of  industry. 

An  increased  supply  of  money  thus  tends,  by  one  mode  of  its 
operation,  to  raise  prices  in  advance  of  wages,  and  thus  to 
stimulate  production  ;  by  another,  to  raise  wages  in  advance  of 
prices,  and  thus  to  check  it ;  in  both,  however,  to  raise  wages, 
and  thus  ultimately  to  render  necessary,  in  order  to  the  main- 
tenance of  profits,  a  general  and  permanent  elevation  of  price. ^ 

This  being  the  process  by  which  increased  supplies  of  money 
operate  in  raising  prices,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  laws  of  their 
advance  we  must  attend,  first,  to  the  direction  of  the  new  expen- 
diture ;  secondly,  to  the  facilities  for  extending  the  suppl}'  of 
different  kinds  of  commodities ;  and,  thirdly,  to  the  facilities  for 
contracting  it. 

With  regard  to  the  first  point, — the  direction  of  tlie  new  ex- 
penditure,—  this  will  naturally  be  determined  by  the  liabits  and 
tastes  of  the  persons  into  whose  possession  the  new  money  comes. 
These  persons  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  gold  countries,  and,  after 
them,  those  in  other  countries  who  can  best  supply  their  wants. 
Speaking  broadly,  we  may  say  that  the  persons  who  will  chiefly 


'  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  is  inconsistent  with  the  fundamental  doctrine  main* 
taincd  by  Kicardo,  that"  high  wages  do  not  make  high  prices."  That  doctrine  assumes 
the  value  of  money  to  be  constant.  Ricardo  was  quite  aware  of  the  exception  to  the  general 
principle,  and  points  it  out  in  the  following  passage:  — 

"  Money,  being  a  variable  commodity,  the  rise  of  money  wages  will  be  frequently  occa> 
sioned  by  a  fall  in  the  value  of  money.  A  rise  of  wagesyVowi /A/5  cause  will,  indeed,  be 
invariably  accompanied  by  a  rise  in  the  price  of  commodities;  but  in  such  cases  it  will  be 
found  that  labor  and  all  commodities  have  not  varied  in  regard  to  each  other,  and  that  the 
variation  has  been  confined  to  money."  —  Ricaroo's  Works  (Second  Edition),  p.  31. 


1)1 


:?'" 


m.<^: 


r 


^ 


Hit 


194 


SELECTIONS. 


'\  II 


benefit  by  the  gold  discoveries  belong  to  the  middle  and  lower 
rjinks  of  society ;  in  a  large  degree  to  the  lowest  rank,  the  class  of 
unskilled  laborers.  The  direction  of  the  new  expenditure  will 
consequently  be  that  indicated  by  the  habits  and  tastes  of  these 
classes,  and  the  commodities  which  will  be  most  affected  by  it 
will  be  those  which  fall  most  largely  within  their  cojisumption. 

With  respect,  secondly,  to  facilities  for  extending  supply,  these 
will  be  found  to  depend  principally  upon  two  circumstances: 
first,  on  the  extent  to  which  machinery  is  employed  in  produc- 
tion ;  and,  secondly,  on  the  degree  in  which  the  process  of  pro- 
duction is  independent  of  natural  agencies  which  require  time  for 
accomplishing  their  ends.  The  distinction  marked  by  these  two 
conditions,  it  will  be  found,  corresponds  pretty  accurately  with 
two  other  distinctions,  —  with  the  distinction,  namely,  between 
raw  and  manufactured  products ;  and,  amongst  raw  products, 
with  that  between  those  derived  from  the  animal  and  those 
derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  An  article  of  finished 
manufacture,  in  the  production  of  which  machinery  bears  a  prin- 
cipal part,  and  which  is  independent,  or  nearly  so,  of  natural 
processes,  may  after  a  short  notice  be  rapidly  multiplied  to  meet 
any  probable  e\tension  of  demand.  An  article  of  raw  prod- 
uce, being  in  a  less  degree  under  the  dominion  of  machinery, 
and  depending  more  upon  natural  processes  which  require 
time  for  their  accomplishment,  cannot  be  increased  with  the 
same  facility ;  and  production  will  consequently,  in  this  case, 
be  comparatively  slow  in  overtaking  an  extension  of  demand. 
But  of  raw  products,  those  derived  from  the  animal  are  still 
less  under  the  dominion  of  machinery  than  those  derived 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  still  more  dependent  on 
the  slow  processes  of  nature,  and,  consequently,  production 
must,  in  their  case,  be  still  more  tardy  in  overtaking  demand. 
Supposing,  then,  the  extension  of  demand  to  be  in  all  three  cases 
the  same,  the  immediate  rise  of  price  will,  cceteris  paribus^  be  in 
all  the  same  ;  but  in  the  case  of  articles  of  finished  manufacture, 
this  rise  will  be  quickly  corrected  by  the  facilities  available  for 
increased  production,  while  in  raw  vegetable  products  the  correc- 
tion will  take  place  more  slowly,  and  in  raw  animal  products  more 
slowly  still.* 

1  The  following  passage  occurs  in  the  "  History  of  Prices,"  vol.vi.,  p.  i-o:  "The  groups 
of  commodities  which  exhibit  the  most  important  instances  of  a  rise  of  price  are  the  raw 
materials  most  extensively  used  in  manufactures,  and  the  production  of  which  does  not 


i  1 


THE  NEW   GOLD. 


195 


But,  thirdly,  I  said  that  the  progress  of  prices  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  gold  supplies  would  be  governed  by  the  facility  with 
which  supply  can  be  contracted.     Every  one  who  has  practical 
experience  of  manufacturing  operations  is  aware  that,  when  capi- 
tal  has   once   been  embarked  in  any  branch  of   production,   it 
cannot   at  once    be  removed  to  a  different  one  the  moment  the 
needs  of  society  may  require  a  change  ;  whence  it  happens  that, 
on  any  sudden  change  taking  place  in  the  direction  of  a  nation's 
expenditure,  or  when  from  miscalculation  production  has  been 
extended  beyond  existing  wants,  producers  frequently  choose  to 
continue  their  business  at  diminished  profits   or  even  at  a  positive 
loss,   rather   than    incur  still  greater  damage  by  suflering  their 
capital   to  lie  idle,  or  by  attempting  to  transfer  it  suddenly  into 
some  new  branch  of  production.     The  supply  of  a  commodity  is 
not   therefore  always,  or  generally,  at   once  contracted  on  the 
demand  for  it  falling  ofl',  or  on  its  production  becoming  less  profit- 
able, and,  where  this  is  so,  it  is  evident  that  prices  must  at  times 
continue  depressed  below  the  normal  level ;  the  duration  of  the 
depression  depending  on  the  length  of  time  required  to  efiect  a 
transference  of  the  unproductive  capital  to  some  more  lucrative 
investment.  Now,  the  difficulty  of  accomplishing  this  will  gener- 
ally be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  fixed   capital  em- 
ployed ;  and  the  principal  form  in  which  fixed  capital  exists  is 
that  of  machinery.     It  is,  therefore,  in  articles  in  the  production 
of   which  machinery  is  extensively  employed  —  that    is  to  say, 
in  the  more  highly  finished  manufactures — that  the  contraction 
of  supply  will  be  most  difficult ;  and  this,  it  will  be  observed,  is 
also  the  kind  of  commodities  for  extending  the  supply  of  which  the 
facilities  are  greatest.       While,  therefore,  manufactured  articles 


l^roups 
rie  raw 

es  not 


admit  of  rapid  extension;  and,  second,  the  groups  of  commodities  in  which  there  is  little, 
if  any,  rise  of  price  in  1S57,  ''s  compared  with  1851,  are  articles  of  colonial  and  tropical 
produce,  the  supply  of  which,  drawn  from  a  variety  of  sources,  does  admit  of  being' 
considerably  and  expeditiously  enlarged."  The  Jact  of  the  rise  of  price  in  raw  materials 
is  here  admitted,  though,  in  ascribing  that  rise,  as  by  implication  the  passage  does,  to  the 
paucity  of  the  sources  of  supply,  the  explanation  is,  as  I  conceive,  erroneous.  The  sources, 
€.£".,  from  which  tea  and  sugar  are  drawn  are  not  more  various  than,  nor  indeed  so  various 
as,  those  from  which  beef  and  mutton,  butter  and  provisions,  timber,  tallow,  and  leather 
are  drawn;  yet  all  these  latter  articles  have  very  considerably  advanced  in  price.  Again, 
amongst  colonial  and  tropical  produce  Mr.  Newmarch  includes  rum  and  tobacco,  and  he 
might  also  have  included  cotton;  yet  these  articles,  though  falling  within  the  class  which 
he  says  admits  of  being  expeditiously  enlarged,  and  which,  therefore,  according  to  his 
theory,  should  not  have  risen  in  price,  have  in  fact  risen  in  a  very  marked  manner.  It 
appears  to  me  that  these  phenomena  can  only  be  understood  by  reference  to  the  principle 
which  I  have  endeavored  to  explain  further  on — namely,  the  efficacy  of  the  currency  of 
diiferent  countries  in  determining  local  prices. 


<^ir.;: 


m 


! 


r 


r 


196 


SELECTIONS. 


iff' 


can  never  be  very  long  in  advance  of  the  general  movement  of 
prices,  they  may,  of  all  commodities,  be  the  longest  in  arrear 
of  it. 

The  operation  of  this  principle  will  be  shown  chiefly  in  that 
class  of  articles  which  feels  the  etVect  of  the  new  gold  only  through 
its  indirect  action  —  that  is  to  say,  through  its  action  upon  wages. 
With  respect  to  such  articles  there  is  no  extension  of  demand, 
and  the  price  consequently  can  only  be  raised  through  a  contrac- 
tion of  supply.  It  is  evident  that  of  all  commodities  this  is  the 
class  in  which  the  rise  of  price  must  proceed  most  slowly. 

From  the  foregoing  considerations,  then,  I  arrive  at  the  follow- 
ing general  conclusions :  — 

First.  —  That  the  commodities,  the  price  of  which  may  be 
expected  first  to  rise  under  the  influence  of  the  new  money,  are 
those  which  fall  most  extensively  within  the  consumption  of  the 
productive  classes,  but  more  particularly  within  the  consumption 
of  the  laboring  and  artisan  section  of  these. 

Secondly.  —  That  of  such  commodities,  that  portion  which 
consists  of  finished  manufactures,  though  their  price  may  in  the 
first  instance  be  rapidly  raised,  cannot  continue  long  in  advance 
of  the  general  movement,  owing  to  the  facilities  available  for 
rapidly  extending  the  supply  ;  whereas,  should  the  production, 
from  over-estimation  of  the  increasing  requirements,  be  once 
carried  to  excess,  their  prices,  in  consequence  of  the  difficulty  of 
contracting  supply,  may  be  kept  for  some  considerable  time  below 
the  normal  level. 

Thirdly.  — That  such  raw  products  as  fall  within  the  consump- 
tion of  the  classes  indicated,  not  being  susceptible  of  the  same 
rapid  extension  as  manufactures,  may  continue  for  some  time  in 
advance  of  the  general  movement,  and  that,  among  raw  products, 
the  eflects  will  be  more  marked  in  those  derived  from  the  animal 
than  in  those  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Fourthly,  —  That  the  commodities  last  to  feel  the  effects  of  the 
new  money,  and  which  may  be  expected  to  rise  most  slowly  under 
its  influence,  are  those  articles  of  finished  manufacture  which  do 
not  happen  to  fall  within  the  range  of  the  new  expenditure  ;  such 
articles  being  affected  only  by  its  indirect  action,  and  this  action 
being  in  their  case  obstructed  by  impediments  to  the  contraction 
of  supply. 

This  is  one  class  of  laws  by  which  I  conceive  the  ascending 
movement  in  prices  will  be  governed  ;  and  up  to  this  point  1  have 


of  the 

lunder 

Ich  do 

such 

iction 

iction 

|nding 
have 


i 


I 


THE  NEW   GOLD. 


197 


the  satisfaction  of  finding  my  conchisions  very  fully  corrolioratcd 
by  the  independent  investigations  of  a  French  economist,  M. 
Levasseur,  who,  in  some  articles  lately  contributed  by  liim  to  the 
Journal  des  Rconomistes^  has,  by  an  entirely  ditferent  line  of  in- 
vestigation from  that  which  I  have  folhnved,  —  namely,  by  general- 
izing on  the  statistics  of  prices  in  France  during  the  period  of 
1847  to  1856,  —  arrived  at  conclusions  in  the  main  points  identical 
with  those  which  I  have  now  advanced.' 

There  is,  however,  another  principle  to  which  I  venture  to  call 
attention,  which  has  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  been  noticed  by  any 
of  the  economists  who  have  treated  this  question,  Init  wiiicli,  it 
appears  to  me,  must  exercise  a  powerful  inHuence  on  the  course 
of  the  movement.  The  principle  to  which  I  refer  is  that  efficacy 
which  resides  in  the  currency  of  each  country,  into  which  any 
portion  of  the  new  money  may  be  received,  for  determining  the 
eflect  of  this  infusion  on  the  ranf  e  of  local  prices. 

It  is  evident  that  the  quantity  of  metallic  money  necessary  to 
support  any  required  advance  of  prices  throughout  a  given  range 
of  business  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  currency  into  which 
it  is  received  ;  that  the  quantity  required  will  be  greater  in  pro- 
portion as  the  metallic  element  of  the  currency  is  greater ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  less  in  proportion  as  the  credit  ele- 
ment prevails.  If  the  currency  of  a  country  be  purely  metallic, 
a  given  addition  of  coin  will  increase  the  aggregate  medium 
of  exchange  in  that  country  only  by  the  same  amount ;  if,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  currency  consists  largely  of  credit  con- 
trivances, each  addition  to  its  coin  becomes  the  basis  of  a  new 
superstructure  of  credit  in  the  form  of  bank-notes  and  credits, 
bills  of  exchange,  checks,  etc.,  and  the  aggregate  circulation  is 
increased,  not  simply  by  the  amount  of  the  added  coin,  but  by  the 
extent  of  the  new  fabric  of  credit  of  which  this  coin  is  made  the 
foundation.  Applying  this  principle  to  the  diflerent  countries  of 
the  world,  it  follows  that  a  given  addition  to  the  metiiJlic  stock  of 
Great  Britain  or  the  United  States,  in  whose  monetary  systems 
credit  is  very  efficacious,  will  cause  a  greater  expansion  of  the 
total  circulation,  and  therefore  will  support  a  greater  advance  in 
general  prices,  than  the  same  addition  to  the  currency  of  countries 
like  France,  in  which  credit  is  less  active  ;  and  that,  again,  the 
effect  in  countries  like  France  will  be  greater  than  in  countries 

i  See  Cairnes,  Appendix,  p.  360,  for  a  summary  of  M.  Levasseur's  conclusions. 


'II 

\\\ 


\y  jf 


f 


^ 


m 


^ 


198 


SELECTIONS. 


f'' 


i 

if  y 

i 

1  ■ 

m 


like  India  or  Cliina,  in  which  the  currencies  arc  almost  purely 
metallic,  and  wliere  credit  is  comparatively  little  used. 

Now,  this  beinfi;  so,  if  we  consider  further  that  the  countries 
which  receive  in  the  first  instance  the  larj^est  share  of  the  new 
money  —  namely,  En<j;land  and  the  United  States  —  are  also  those 
in  which,  from  the  character  of  their  currencies,  a  fijiven  amount 
of  coin  will  produce  the  greatest  ellect ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  Asiatic  communities,  in  which,  from  the  weakness  of  the 
credit  element,  the  currencies  are  least  expansible,  receive  but  a 
small  portion  of  their  share  of  the  new  money  direct  from  the 
gold  countries ; '  being  compelled  to  wait  for  the  remainder  till 
it  has  flowed  through  the  i)rincipal  markets  of  Europe  and 
America,  aflecting  prices  in  its  transit;  —  if,  I  say,  we  consider 
these  facts  in  connection  with  the  principle  to  which  I  have 
adverted,  1  think  we  must  recognize  in  that  principle  —  in  the 
influence  of  the  currency  of  each  country  on  the  range  of  its  local 
prices  —  an  agency  which  must  modify  in  no  small  degree  the 
general  character  of  the  movement  which  is  now  in  progress. 

In  speaking  of  the  influence  of  the  currency  of  a  coimtry  on  the 
range  of  its  local  prices,  I  should  explain  that  I  use  the  words 
"local  prices"  in  a  somewhat  restricted  sense;  namely,  with 
reference  to  the  locality  in  which  commodities  are  produced^  not 
to  that  in  which  they  are  sold,  their  price  in  the  latter  place  being 
always  determined  by  their  price  in  the  former.  Thus,  when  I 
speak  of  Australian,  English,  or  Indian  prices,  I  shall  be  under- 
stood to  mean  the  prices  of  their  several  products  in  Australia, 
England,  or  India. 

Understanding  the  words,  then,  in  this  sense,  let  us  see  how  far 
local  prices  are  likely  to  be  affected  by  the  cause  to  which  I  have 
adverted. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  let  it  be  obsei-ved  that  a  very  remarkable 
divergence  of  local  prices  from  the  range  previously  obtaining  in 


1  [From  statistics  recently  furnished  by  the  Economist,  I  learn  that  the  facts  have  not 
been  as  I  here  assumed,  at  least  since  iSjS  (the  date  from  which  full  returns  of  specie  im- 
ports have  been  published  by  the  Board  of  Trade) ;  and  it  is  probable  I  was  mistaken  in  my 
supposition  with  regard  to  what  had  occurred  before  that  time.  Since  1S5S,  of  ;{;90,ooo,ocx)  ol 
gold  received  and  retained  by  India  and  the  East,  some  £,^^,000,000,  more  than  a  half  of  the 
whole,  appear  to  have  gone  there  directly  from  Australia,  the  remainder  only  having  come 
through  Europe.  This  error  as  to  matter  of  fact  will,  no  doubt,  affect  to  some  extent  the 
conclusion  contended  for.  The  causes  tending  to  a  divergence  of  European  from  Asiatic 
prices  have  not  been,  it  seems,  as  powerful  as  I  had  supposed;  and,  in  point  of  fact,  this 
feature  in  the  movement  has  been  less  marked  than  I  sketched  it;  but  for  this,  other  causes 
besides  tliat  noticed  here  have  been  responsible  (1872).    See  Introductory  Chapter,  p.  13.] 


»ve  not 

ecie  im- 

in  my 

3,ooool 

'  of  the 

■g  come 

lent  the 

lAsiatic 

let,  this 

I  causes 

li.] 


1 

I 


THE   NEW    GOLD. 


199 


the  international  scale  has  already  taken  place.'  The  prices  of  all 
articles  produced  in  Australia  and  California  are  at  present  on  an 
averajjc  from  two  to  three  times  hijTjher  than  those  which  prevailed 
previous  to  the  gold  discoveries ;  these  rates  have  now  been  main- 
tained for  several  years,  and  are  likely  to  continue  ;  hut,  while 
this  advance  has  taken  place  in  the  j^old  countries,  in  no  part  of 
the  world  external  to  those  rej^jions  have  prices  advanced  by  so 
much  as  one-third.  The  possibility  of  a  diverj^ence  of  local  prices 
is  thus,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  estalilished  ;  and  the  explanation  of 
the  phenomenon  I  take  to  be  this.  The  sudden  cheapen iiif?  of 
gold  in  Australia  and  California  quickly  led,  through  the  action 
of  competition  amongst  the  diHerent  departments  of  industry,  to 
a  corresponding  advance  in  the  prices  of  everything  produced  in 
those  countries ;  this  advance  being  in  their  case  possible^ 
because,  fiom  the  limited  extent  of  the  transactions,  the  local 
circulation  was  quickly  raised  to  the  point  sufficient  to  sustain  a 
double  or  triple  elevation  ;  but  it  was  impossible  that  the  ciuTen- 
ciesof  all  countries  should  be  expanded  in  the  same  proportions  in 
the  same  time;  and,  consequently,  prices  in  other  countries  have 
not  risen  with  the  same  rapidity.  The  cause,  therefore,  of  this 
divergence  of  local  prices — the  circumstance  which  keeps  general 
prices  in  arrear  of  that  elevation  which  they  have  attained  in 
Australia  and  California  —  is  the  difficulty  of  expanding  the 
currencies  of  the  world  to  those  dimensions  which  such  an 
advance  would  require.  This  expansion,  however,  is  being 
gradually  eflccted  by  the  process  we  are  now  witnessing,  —  the 
increased  production  of  the  precious  metals,  and  their  ditVusion 
throughout  the  world.  But,  as  I  have  said,  the  diflusion  is  not 
uniform  over  the  various  currencies,  nor  are  the  currencies  receiv- 
ing the  new  supplies  of  uniform  susceptibility ;  and  the  ijiequali- 
ties  are  such  as  to  aggravate  each  other ;  the  currencies  which  are 
the  most  sensitive  to  an  increase  of  the  precious  metals  receiving 
in  the  first  instance  nearly  the  whole  of  the  new  gold  ;  while  the 
least  censitive  currencies  are  the  last  to  receive  their  share.  And 
these,  it  appears  to  me,  are  grounds  for  expecting  amongst  other 
countries  further  examples  of  that  phenomenon  of  local  diver- 
gence, of  which  one  has  already  been  aftbrded  by  the  gold  coun- 
tries. 

To  judge,  however,  of  the  extent  to  which  such  local  variations 

>  See  Cairnes,  pp.  34,  35. 


E.L?:?'' 


Hi! 


if  III  I 


K 


1 1% 


200 


SELECTIONS. 


of  price  can  be  carried,  we  must  advert  to  the  corrective  innuences 
wliich  the  play  of  international  dealinjjs  calls  into  action  ;  and 
these  appear  to  me  to  resolve  themselves  into  the  two  followinfr: 
namclv.  first,  the  corrective,  whi^  h  is  supplied  by  the  competi- 
tion of  dilVcrent  nations,  producers  of  the  same  commoilities,  in 
neutral  markets;  and,  secondly,  that  which  exists  in  the  recipro- 
cal demand  of  the  different  commercial  countries  for  each  other's 
productions. 

The  first  form  of  the  corrective  is  obviously  the  most  powerful, 
and  must,  so  far  as  its  operation  extends,  at  once  impose  a  check 
upon  any  serious  divergence.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  prices  in 
England  and  the  United  States  could  not  proceed  very  much  in 
advance  of  prices  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  since  the  certain 
effect  of  such  an  occurrence  would  be  to  send  consumers  from  the 
dearer  to  the  cheaper  markets,  and  thus  to  divert  the  tide  of  gold 
from  the  currencies  of  England  and  America  to  the  currencies  of 
France,  Germany,  and  other  continental  states,  —  a  process  which 
would  be  continued  until  prices  were  restored  to  nearly  the  same 
relative  level  as  before.  But  it  is  only  amongst  nations  which  are 
competitors  in  the  same  description  of  commodities  that  this 
equalizing  process  comes  into  operation  :  as  between  countries 
like  England  and  America  on  the  one  hand,  and  India  and  China 
on  the  other,  —  in  which  the  climate,  soil,  and  general  physical 
conditions  difler  widely,  in  which,  consequently,  the  stnplc  indus- 
tries are  different,  and  whose  productions  do  not,  therefore,  come 
into  competition  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  — this  corrective  in- 
fluence would  be  felt  slightly  or  not  at  all.  The  only  check  which 
could  be  counted  on  in  this  case  would  be  that  far  weaker  one 
which  is  furnished  by  the  action  of  reciprocal  demand  in  inter- 
national dealings.  Thus,  supposing  prices  to  rise  more  rapidly 
in  England  than  in  India,  this  must  lead,  on  the  pne  hand,  to  an 
increased  expenditure  in  England  on  Indian  commodities,  and,  on 
the  other,  to  a  diminished  expenditure  in  India  on  English  com- 
modities, with  this  result,  —  a  steady  efflux  of  the  precious  metals 
from  the  former  to  the  latter  country.  Such  an  efflux,  as  com- 
mercial men  are  well  aware,  has  long  been  a  normal  phenomenon 
in  our  Eastern  trade,  but  it  has  lately  assumed  dimensions  which 
constitute  it  a  new  fact  needing  a  special  explanation.  I  believe 
that  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstances  to  which  I  am 
calling  attention. 

English  and  American  prices,  and  with  them  money  incomes 


THE  NEW   GOLD. 


201 


)mes 


in  Eiip;lan(l  and  America,  have,  under  the  action  of  the  new  ^old, 
been  advancinjij  more  rapidly  tlian  prices  and  incomes  in  Oriental 
countries  ;  and  the  result  has  been  a  ehan<;e  in  the  relative  indebt- 
edness of  those  two  parts  of  the  world,  leadinji;  to  a  transfer  to 
the  creditor  country  of  correspondinj^  amoimts  of  that  material 
which  forms  the  iniiversal  ecjuivalent  of  commerce.  It  is  true, 
indeed,  that  other  causes  have  also  contributed  to  this  result,  and 
in  particular  I  may  mention  the  failure  of  the  silU  crop  in 
Europe,  which  has  larjjjely  thrown  us  upon  China,  as  a  means 
of  supplementing  our  deficient  supplies.  But  the  main  cause  of 
the  phenomenon  in  its  present  proportions  is,  I  conceive,  to  be 
found,  not  in  any  such  mere  temporary  disturbances,  but  in  the 
natural  overflowing  (consecpient  upon  the  increase  of  the  precious 
metals)  of  the  redundant  currencies  of  Europe  and  America  into 
the  more  absorbent  and  iiupassive  systems  of  Asia.'  This,  then, 
I  say,  is  the  oiil\  substantial  corrective  aflbrded  to  the  advance  of 
prices  in  Europe  and  America  beyond  their  former  and  normal 
level  in  relation  to  prices  in  the  East ;  and  the  question  is,  will 
this  corrective  be  sufiicient  to  neutralize  the  tendency  to  a  diver- 
gence.^ Will  the  flow  of  the  precious  metals  from  West  to  East 
suffice  to  keep  prices  in  England  and  America  within  the  range 
prescribed  by  the  inelastic  metallic  systems  of  Asia?  I  do  not 
conceive  that  the  corrective  will  be  adequate  to  this  end,  and  I 
rest  this  conclusion  upon  the  facts  and  principles  which  I  have 
stated, —  the  vast  proportion  of  the  whole  gold  production  which 
finds  its  way  in  the  first  instance  into  the  markets  of  England  and 
America,  the  comparatively  small  portion  which  goes  direct  to 
the  markets  of  Asia,'-  the  highly  elastic  and  expansible  currencies 
of  the  former  countries,  and  the  extremely  impassive  and  inex- 
pansible  currencies  of  the  latter. 

We  find,  therefore,  two  sets  of  laws  by  which  the  progress  of 
prices,  or  (which  comes  to  the  same  thing)  the  depreciation  of 

'  Accorditiffly  we  find  that  the  drain  which,  during  the  revulsion  of  trade  following  on 
the  coininercial  crisis  of  1S57,  had  for  a  while  ceased,  has,  with  the  revival  of  trade,  recom- 
menced.  As  a  proof  how  little  mere  practical  sagacity  is  to  be  trusted  in  a  question  of  this 
kind,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  mention  that,  only  three  months  since,  mercantile  writers 
were  confidently  predicting  the  turning  of  the  tide  of  silver  from  the  East  to  England, 
The  following  is  from  a  circular  of  Messrs.  Ellisen  &  Co.,  quoted  in  the  Times  City  article, 
July  2S,  1S5S,  apparently  with  the  editor's  approval:  "The  time  is  rapidly  approaching 
when  silver  will  also  be  shipped  from  here  [China]  to  England."  So  far  from  this  being  the 
case,  the  drain  to  the  East  has  again  set  in,  and  gives  every  indication  of  assuming  its 
former  dimensions.  Every  mail  to  India  during  the  present  month  (November,  1S5S)  has 
taken  out  large  amounts  of  silver, 
'  See  ante,  p,  19S,  note. 


-i*'- 


^ 


I 


V 


lljip 


.  I, 

i 


i  If*  •* 


203 


SELKCTIONS. 


gold  under  the  action  of  an  increased  supply,  is  regulated  :  first, 
those  which  I  explained  in  the  eirlier  portion  of  this  paper,  which 
depend  chietly  on  the  facility  with  which  the  supply  of  com- 
modities can  he  adjusted  to  sucii  changes  in  demand  as  the  new 
money  expenditire  may  occasion  ;  and,  secondly,  those  which 
result  from  the  action  of  the  new  money  on  the  currencies  into 
which  it  is  received.  According  to  the  former  principle,  the  rise 
in  price  follows  the  nature  of  the  commodity  atVected  ;  thus  it  will 
in  general  he  greater  in  animal  than  in  vegetahle  productions — • 
in  raw  produce  than  in  finished  manufactures.  According  to  the 
latter  principle,  the  advance  follows  the  economic  conditions  of 
the  locality  in  which  the  commodity  is  produced.  Thus  the  rise 
in  price  has  hecn  most  rapid  in  commodities  produced  in  the  gold 
countries  ;  having  in  these  at  a  single  hound  reached  its  utmost 
limit,  —  the  limit  set  by  the  cost  of  procuring  gold.  After  com- 
modities produced  in  the  gold  regions,  the  advance  I  conceive  will 
proceed  most  rapidly  in  the  productions  of  England  and  tlie  United 
States  ;  after  these,  at  no  great  interval,  in  the  productions  of  the 
continent  of  Europe  ;  while  the  commodities  the  last  to  feel  the 
efiects  of  the  new  money,  and  which  will  advance  most  slowly 
under  its  influence,  are  the  productions  of  India  and  China,  and, 
I  may  add,  of  tropical  countries  generally,  so  far  as  these  share, 
as  regards  their  economic  conditions,  the  general  character  of  the 
former  countries. 

Such  appear  to  be  the  general  principles  according  to  which 
a  depreciation  of  the  precious  metals,  under  the  action  of  an 
increased  supply,  tends  to  establish  itself.  With  a  view  to  ascer- 
tain how  far,  in  the  progress  of  prices  up  to  the  present  time 
(185S),  any  trace  of  their  operation  can  be  discerned,  I  have 
drawn  up  some  statistical  tables  ; '  and  although,  from  the  imper- 
fect nature  of  the  materials  which  I  have  been  able  to  collect,  I 
cannot  claim  for  the  result  a  complete  verification  of  the  theoretic 
conclusions  which  I  have  ventured  to  advance,  I  think  they  are  such 
as  to  justify  me  in  placing  some  confidence  in  the  general  sound- 
ness of  those  views.  Before,  however,  stating  the  results  of  the 
tables,  two  or  three  remarks  must  be  premised. 

First,  I  would  crave  attention  to  this  fact,  that  the  present  time 
[185S]  is  one  singularly  free  from  disturbing  influences,  and  that 
such  as  do  exist  are  of  a  kind  rather  to  conceal  than  exaggerate 


'  See  Cairnes,  Appendix. 


THE  NEW  GOLD. 


203 


|me 
Ihat 
fate 


the  cfTccts  of  depreciation.  Thus,  we  have  had  three  harvests  in 
succession  of,  I  believe,  more  than  averajje  prochictiveness  (the 
h>st  year  of  deficiency  hcinjj  1S55)  I  and  this  cause  of  abundance 
has  been  assisted  by  free-trade,  which  has  opened  our  ports  to  the 
produce  of  ;ill  quarters  of  the  world.  Afijain,  aithoujjh  in  the 
period  under  review  we  have  passed  throuj^h  a  Euiopean  war,  yet 
we  have  now  enjoyed  two  years  and  a  half  of  peace,  durin<^  wiiich, 
I  think,  the  economic  inHucnccs  of  the  war  may  be  taken  to  have 
exhausted  themselves.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  we  have  an  Indian 
revolt  still  on  our  hands,  besides  havinjj  but  just  concluded  sonic 
hostile  operations  in  China.  IJut  these  disturbances  have  not  been 
of  a  kind  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  <jeneral  course  of  trade, 
except  in  some  few  Oriental  commodities  in  which  their  ctVects 
are  sli<j;htly  apparent. 

But  what  renders  the  present  time  peculiarly  important  as  a 
point  of  comparison  with  former  periods,  is  its  being  in  immediate 
sequence  to  a  severe  commercial  crisis.  The  efl'ect  of  the  crisis 
of  last  winter  has  been  efVectually  to  eliminate  one  great  disturb- 
ing element  from  those  causes  to  which  a  rise  of  price  might  be 
attributed,  —  vhe  element  of  credit.  Trade  is  now  sufVering 
depression  in  almost  all  its  branches ;  and  prices,  aller  a  period 
of  undue  inflation,  have,  through  an  ordeal  of  bankruptcy,  been 
brought  to  the  test  of  real  value.  In  the  fluctuations  of  commerce 
we  have  reached  the  lowest  point  of  the  wave  ;  whatever,  there- 
fore, be  the  range  of  prices  at  the  present  time,  we  may  at  least 
be  sure  that  no  commercial  convulsion  is  likely  to  lower  it. 

We  have  further  to  remember  that  in  an  age  like  the  present, 
in  which  science  and  its  applications  to  the  arts  are  in  all  civilized 
countries  making  rapid  strides,  there  exists  in  most  articles  of 
general  consumption  (but  more  particularly  in  the  more  finished 
manufactures)  a  constant  tendency  to  a  decline  of  price,  through 
the  employment  of  more  efficient  machinery  and  improved  pro- 
cesses of  production.  Now,  taking  all  these  circumstances  to- 
gether, —  the  propitiousness  of  the  seasons,  the  action  of  free- 
trade,  the  absence  of  war,  the  contraction  of  credit,  and  the 
general  tendency  to  a  reduction  of  cost  proceeding  from  the 
progress  of  knowledge, — it  appears  to  me  that,  were  there  no 
other  cause  in  operation,  we  should  have  reason  to  look  for  a  very 
considerable  fall  of  prices  at  the  present  time,  as  compared  with, 
say,  eight  or  ten  years  ago.  Prices,  however,  as  the  following 
tables  will    show,  have  not  fallen ;  they  have,  on  the  contrary. 


i 


204 


SELECTIONS. 


very  decidedly  risen,  and  the  advance  has,  moreover,  as  the  same 
tables  will  also  show,  on  the  whole  proceeded  in  conformity  with 
the  |)rinciples  which  I  have  in  this  paper  endeavored  to  establish. 
And  this  is  my  fjjround  for  assertinjj^  that  the  depreciation  of  our 
standanl  money  is  alreaily,  under  the  action  of  the  new  gold,  an 
accomplished  Jact. 


1'4 


m  n 


Ihif 


Essay  III.  —  Intkknationai.  Results.' 

In  a  former  essay*  it  was  attempted,  from  a  review  of  the  in- 
dustrial history  of  Australia  since  the  late  discovery  of  gold,  to 
make  some  general  deductions  respecting  the  cliaracter  of  that 
event,  and  of  its  influence  upon  national  interests.  Among  other 
conclusions  it  was  maintained  that  the  tendency  of  the  gold  dis- 
coveries, or,  to  speak  with  more  precision,  the  tendency  of  the 
increased  production  of  gold,  was  rather  to  alter  the  distribution 
of  real  wealth  in  the  workl  than  to  increase  its  amount ;  the  bene- 
fit derived  bv  some  countries  and  classes  from  the  event  beiuff  for 
the  most  part  obtained  at  the  expense  of  others.  It  was  shown, 
for  example,  that  the  gain  to  Australia  and  California  from  their 
gold-fields  accrued  to  them  exclusively  through  their  foreign  trade, 
—  their  cheap  gold  enabling  them  to  command  on  easier  terms 
than  formerly  all  foreign  productions  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  only  result  to  foreign  nations  of  the  traffic  thence  arising  was 
an  increase  in  their  stock  of  money, —  a  result  rendered  necessary 
indeed  by  the  new  conditions  of  raising  gold  introduced  by  the 
gold  discoveries,  but  in  itself  destitute  of  any  real  utility.  It  was 
shown,  in  short,  that,  as  regards  commercial  nations,  the  effect  of 
the  gold  discoveries  was  to  place  them  under  the  necessity  of 
enlarging  their  currencies,  compelling  them  to  pay  for  the  requi- 
site increase  bv  an  increased  export  of  their  productions. 

To  this  conclusion  I  was  led  by  direct  inference  from  the  facts 
presented  in  the  gold  countries.  In  the  present  paper  it  is  pro- 
posed to  follow  up  the  inquiry,  with  a  view^  to  a  more  particular 
ascertainment  of  the  consequences  formerly  described  ;  the  object 
being  to  discover  in  what  manner  the  loss  arising  from  the  gold 
movement  is  likely  to  be  distributed  among  commercial  nations, 
and  how  far  this  loss  may  in  particular  cases  be  neutralized  or 
compensated  by  other  influences  which  the  same  movement  may 
develop. 


>  Eraser's  Magazine,  January,  i860. 


»  Essay  I.  of  this  Series. 


II 


'  I  'il 


THE   NEW   GOLD. 


205 


I 


facts 

pro- 

ticular 

[object 

gold 

litions, 

led  or 

It  may 


In  the  discussions  which  have  hitherto  taken  place  upon  this 
question,  the  in(|uiry  into  the  consecjiiencesof  the  gold  discoveries 
has  hecn  conlincd  nhnost  exclusively  to  that  aspect  of  the  event 
in  which  it  is  regarded  as  allecting  fixed  contracts  tlirough  a  de- 
preciation of  tile  monetary  standard.'  As  sof)n  as  the  prohaliility  of 
depreciation  is  settled,  and  the  elVects  of  this  upon  tiie  diirerent 
classes  of  society,  according  as  they  happen  to  be  debtors  or  cred- 
itors under  fixed  contracts,  explained,  the  subject  for  the  most  part 
is  considered  as  exhausted.  I  venture,  however,  to  think  that  tliis 
mode  of  treatment  is  very  far  from  exhausting  the  (|uestion.  It 
seems  to  me  that,  independently  altogether  (jf  the  existence  of  iixed 
contracts,  independently  even  of  gold  being  a  standard  of  value,  the 
increased  production  of  this  nietnl  which  is  now  taking  place  will 
be  attended  —  indeed  lias  already  been  attended  —  with  very  im- 
portant results.  Let  us  observe  for  a  moment  the  movement 
which  is  now  in  progress.  Australia  and  California  have,  during 
the  last  eight  or  ten  years,  sent  into  general  circulation  some  two 
hundred  millions  sterling  of  gold.  Of  this  vast  sum  portions 
have  penetrated  to  the  most  remote  quarters  of  the  world  ;  but 
the  bulk  of  it  has  been  received  into  the  currencies  of  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  from  which  it  has  largely  displaced  the  silver 
formerly  circulating;  the  latter  metal,  as  it  has  become  free, 
flowing  off  into  Asia,  where  it  is  permanently  absorbed.  View- 
ing the  elVect  as  it  occurs  in  the  mass  of  the  two  metals  combined, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  stream  which  rises  in  the  gold  regions  of 
Australia  and  California  flows  through  the  currencies  of  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  and,  after  saturating  the  trade  of  these 
countries,  finally  loses  itself  in  the  hoards  of  China  and  Hindo- 
stan.  The  tide  which  comes  to  light  in  the  sands  and  rocks  of  the 
auriferous  regions  disappears  in  the  accumulations  of  the  East. 
In  conjunction,  however,  with  this  movement,  there  has  been  a 
counter  one.  With  every  advance  in  the  metallic  tide,  a  stream 
of  commodities  has  set  in  in  the  opposite  direction  along  the  same 
course,  —  a  stream  which,  issuing  from  tiie  ports  of  Europe, 
America,  and  Asia,  and  depositing  as  it  proceeds  a  portion  of  the 
wealth  with  which    it   is   charged,   finds  its  termination   in  the 

•  See  Stirling's  "  Gold  Discoveries  ana  their  probable  Consequences ;  "  Chevalier  "  On 
the  Probable  F'all  in  the  Value  of  Gold ; "  Levasseur's  contributions  to  tlie  Journal  des 
iconomi.ttes,  iSjS;  M'CuUoch's  article  "  Precious  Metals,"  in  the  "  Encyclop.-cdia  Britan- 
nica."  In  all  these,  and  in  many  other  minor  productions  on  the  same  subject,  almost  the 
only  conseiiuences  of  the  gold  discoveries  which  are  taken  account  of  are  those  which  occur 
in  fixed  gontracts  tlirough  a  depreciation  of  the  standard. 


:|»i||| 


I 


^ 


206 


SELECTIONS. 


'IP 


In 


markets  of  the  gold  countries.  Here,  then,  we  find  a  vast  dis- 
turbance in  the  conditions  of  national  wealth,  —  a  disturbance 
originating  in  the  gold  discoveries,  and  resulting  in  a  transfer,  on 
an  enormous  scale,  of  consumable  goods,  —  the  means  of  well- 
being —  from  one  side  of  the  globe  to  the  other.  This  disturbance, 
it  is  evident,  is  entirely  independent  of  the  accident  that  gold 
happens  to  be  in  some  countries  a  standard  of  value,  as  well  as 
of  the  existence  of  fixed  money-contracts ;  for  it  includes  within 
the  range  of  its  influence  countries  in  which  gold  is  not,  no  less 
than  those  in  which  it  is,  the  monetary  standard ;  and  it 
aflects  alike  persons  whose  bargains  are  made  from  day  to 
day,  and  those  who  engage  in  contracts  extending  over  cen- 
turies. The  fact  is,  the  movement  in  question  is  the  result  not 
of  gold's  being  a  standard  of  value,  but  of  its  being  a  source  of 
purchasing  power  ;  and  the  influence  of  the  gold  discoveries  hav- 
ing been  hitherto  regarded  almost  exclusively  with  reference  to 
the  former  function,  the  vast  eflects  which  they  are  producing 
through  the  action  of  the  latter  —  that  is  to  say,  by  altering  the 
distribution  of  purchasing  power  in  the  world  —  have  been 
almost  wholly  overlooked.  It  has  indeed  been  perceived  that  a 
great  influx  of  the  precious  metals  is  taking  place,  accompanied 
with  certain  consequences  on  the  trade  of  the  world  ;  but  so  far  as 
I  know,  beyond  some  general  phrases  respecting  the  stimulus 
given  to  production  by  an  increase  of  money,  and  the  great  de- 
velopment of  commerce  which  it  is  causing,  no  attempt  has  yet 
been  made  to  state  the  principles  by  which  the  movement  is 
governed,  or  the  effects  which  may  flow  from  it.  It  is  to  these 
questions,  then,  that  I  would  now  solicit  the  reader's  attention, 
and  towards  their  solution  the  following  remarks  are  oflered  as  a 
contribution. 

Those  who  have  followed  the  course  of  this  controversy  are 
aware  that,  by  most  persons  who  have  taken  part  in  it,  it  has  been 
assumed,  almost  as  an  axiom,  that  no  depreciation  of  gold  in  con- 
sequence of  the  gold  discoveries  has,  up  to  the  present  time,  taken 
place.*  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  we  know  that  the  gold 
prices  of  all   commodities  produced  in  Australia  and  California 

1  The  principal  exceptions  to  this  statement  ar"  M.  Levasseur  (who,  in  an  article  in  the 
yournal  des  Economistes,  March,  iSjS,  estimates  the  rise  of  prices  in  France  since  1S47  •"•' 
20  per  cent,  on  all  commodities),  and  Dr.  Soctbeer,  of  Tlamburg,  who,  in  his  tahje  of  prices 
given  in  his  "  Contributions  to  the  Statistics  of  Prices  in  Hamburg-,"  arrive^  ac  a  similar 
result  (see  Appendix).  Many  other  writers,  indeed,  acknowledge  that  prices  have  risen, 
but  the  rise  is  always  attributed  to  causes  distinct  from  the  increased  production  of  gold. 


m 

; 

■  1 

THE   NEW   GOLD. 


207 


1^ 


i   - 


on 


con- 
taken 

gold 
Tfornia 

|c  in  the 

1847  at 

prices 

Isimilar 

risen, 

told. 


have  risen  in  at  least  a  twofold  proportion  ; '  while  we  have  seen 
that   (so  long  as  the  conditions  of  producing  gold  remain  as  at 
present)  this  rise  must  be  permanent.    To  express  the  same  thing 
differently:  —  in  the  purchase  of  every  commodity  raised  in  the 
gold  countries  two  sovereigns  are  now  required,  and   (the  above 
conditions  being  fulHUed)  will  continue  to  be  required,  where  one 
was  formerly  sutticient ;  and  if  this  does  not  amount  to  a  fall  in  the 
value  of  gold,  I  must  confess  myself  unable   to  understand  the 
meaning  of  that  expression.     It  is  not  to  l)e  supposed  that  so  re- 
markable a  fact  as  this  should  have  escaped  the  attention  of  those 
who  have  written  on  this  question  ;   it  seems  to  me  rather  that  the 
ignoring  of  it   in  the   discussion  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  want  of 
definite  ideas  respecting  value  in  the  precious   metals,  as  well  as 
respecting  the  mode  in  which  changes  in  their  value  are  accom- 
plished.    The  language  which  is  commonly  used  on  the   subject 
would  seem  to  imply  that  gold  and  silver  possess  throughout  the 
world  a  uniform  value,  and  that  all  changes  therein  proceed  in  a 
uniform   maimer,   showing   themselves  at   the  same  time  in  all 
countries,  and  in   respect  to  all  commodities.     Hut  nothing  can 
be  further  from  the  truth  than   such  a   notion.     Gold  and  silver, 
like  all  other  things  which  are  the  subjects  of  international  ox- 
change,  possess  local  values  ;^  and  it  is  by  a  succession  of  opera- 
tions on  the  local  values  of  gold  of  an  unequal  and  fluctuating 
character,  that  its  depreciation  is  being  eflected,  and  that  (the 
conditions  of  production  remaining  as  at  present)  its  value  will 
continue  to   decline.     The   twofold   rise   of    prices   in    the   gold 
countries  forms  the  first  step  in  this  progress ;  and  it  will   be 
through  a  series  of  similar  partial  advances  in  other  countries,  and 
not  by  any  general  movement,  that  the  depreciation  of  the  metal 
throughout  the  world  will  be  accomplished,  if  that  ccr, summation 
is  indeed  to  take  place.     With  the  question  of  depreciation,  how- 
ever, I  am  at  present  no  further  concerned  than  may  be  necessary 
to  show  the  bearing  of  these  changes  in  the  Iccal  values  of  gold 
upon  the  movements  of  trade,  and,  through  these,  upon  national 
interests. 

There  is  no  need  here  to  resort  to  argument  to  prove  that  a 
general  rise  or  a  general  fall  of  prices,  provided  it  be  simultaneous 
and  uniform,   can  be   attended  —  always  excluding  the  case  of 

1  See  Cairnes,  p.  34. 

'  See  on  the  subject  of  the  local  values  of  the  precious  metals,  Ricardo's  "  Works,"  pp. 
77-S6,  and  Mill's  "Trinciples  of  Political  Economy,"  Book  iit.,  chaps,  xix.  and  xxi. 


i 


f^ 


r:= 


1  lit) 


208 


SELECTIONS. 


(I  -' 


tit 


fixed  incomes  and  contracts  already  entered  into  —  with  no  im- 
portant consequences  either  to  nations  or  to  individuals.  It  is 
evident  that  such  a  change  would  merely  alter  the  terms  in  which 
transactions  are  carried  on,  not  the  transactions  themselves.  But 
when  the  rise  or  fall  of  prices  is  not  general, —  in  other  words, 
when  the  change  in  the  values  of  the  precious  metals  is  merely 
local,  —  it  will  be  seen  that  important  consequences  must  result. 
Supposing,  e.£:,  the  prices  of  all  commodities  produced  in  Eng- 
laml  to  be  doubled,  while  prices  throughout  the  rest  of  the  world 
remained  unchanged,  it  is  evident  that  half  the  commodities  ex- 
ported from  England  would,  under  these  circumstances,  be 
suflicient  to  discharge  our  f-)reign  debts.  With  half  the  capital 
and  labor  now  employed  in  producing  goods  for  the  foreign 
markets,  we  should  attain  the  same  result  as  at  present,  —  the  pro- 
curing of  our  imports  ;  while  the  remaining  half  would  be  set 
free  to  be  applied  to  other  purposes,  —  to  the  further  augmentation 
of  our  wealth  and  well-being.  England  would,  therefore,  in  the 
case  we  have  supposed,  be  benefited  in  all  her  foreign  dealings  to 
the  full  extent  of  the  rise  in  price.  On  the  other  hand,  foreign 
countries  would,  in  exchange  for  the  commodities  which  they 
send  us,  receive  in  return  of  our  commodities  but  half  their  present 
supply.  Their  labor  and  capital  Vvould  go  but  half  as  fjir  as  at 
present  in  commanding  our  productions,  and  they  would  be  losers 
in  proportion.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  while  nations  have 
not,  any  more  than  individuals,  any  interest  in  the  positive  height 
which  prices  may  attain,  every  nation,  as  well  as  every  individual 
trader,  is  interested  in  raising,  in  relatlo7i  to  others^  the  price  of 
its  own  productions.  The  lower  the  local  value,  therefore,  of  the 
precious  metals  in  any  country,  the  greater  will  be  the  advantage 
to  that  country  in  foreign  markets. 

This  being  the  manner  in  which  nations  are  interested  in 
changes  in  the  value  of  gold,  let  us  now  observe  the  efi'ect  which 
the  gold  discoveries  are  producing  in  this  respect.  As  has  been 
already  stated,  the  local  value  of  gold  in  Australia  and  California 
has  fallen  to  one-half,  —  the  prices  of  their  productions  having 
risen  in  a  twofold  proportion  ;  ^  and  prices  in  other  parts  of  the 

•  This  stutoineiit  is  not  jjpiven  as  strictly  accurate.  On  the  whole,  the  advance  of  local 
prices  in  tlie  gold  countries  is  at  present  (1S59)  considerably  more  than  this,  some  leading 
articles,  as  house-rent,  nient,  etc.,  having  risen  in  a  fourfold  proportion  and  upwards.  I 
adopt  the  proportion  of  two  to  one,  because  money  wages  have  risen  in  about  this  ratio, 
and  money  wages,  under  a  depreciatioa  of  the  precious  metals,  ultimately  govern  money 
prices. 


THE  NEW   GOLD. 


209 


xl    in 

Ivhich 

been 

[brnia 
jtiving 
\f:  the 

If  local 
leading 
Irds.    I 

Is  ratio, 
Imoney 


world  having  undergone  no  corresponding  change,  these  countries 
realize  the  position  which  we  have  just  been  considering  in  our 
hypothetical  case.  A  given  quantity  of  their  capital  and  labor 
goes  twice  as  far  as  formerly  in  commanding  foreign  productions, 
while  a  given  quantity  of  foreign  labor  and  capital  goes  only  one- 
half  as  far  in  commanding  theirs.  The  world  has  thus,  through 
the  gold  discoveries,  been  placed  in  its  dealings  with  California 
and  Australia  at  a  commercial  disadvantage  ;  and  from  this  dis- 
advantage it  can  only  escape  (always  supposing  the  present  con- 
ditions of  pvcilucing  gold  to  continue)  by  raising  the  prices  of  its 
productions  in  a  corresponding  degree.  Every  country,  therefore, 
is  interested  in  raising  as  rapidly  as  possible  the  prices  of  its 
productions,  —  in  other  words,  in  the  most  rapid  possible  depre- 
ciation in  the  local  value  of  its  gold.*  The  sooner  this  is  elfected, 
the  sooner  will  the  country  be  restored  to  its  natural  commercial 
footing  in  relation  to  Australia  and  California  ;  while  in  relation 
to  countries  where  prices  do  not  rise  with  the  same  rapidity,  it 
will  possess  the  same  kind  of  advantage  which  is  now  enjoyed  by 
the  gold  countries. 

This  conclusion,  I  find,  is  directly  at  variance  with  the  opiniLMi 
of  some  economists  of  eminence.  Mr.  M'Culloch,  for  example, 
in  his  recent  contribution  to  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"^ 
maintains  "  that  the  mischievous  influence  resulting  from  a  fall 
in  the  value  of  the  precious  metals  depends  in  a  great  measure  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  brought  about."  But  I  apprehend 
the  ditVerence  between  Mr.  M'Culloch  and  myself  arises  from  his 
attending  exclusively  to  a  single  class  of  consequences, — those, 
namely,  which  result,  in  the  case  of  fixed  contracts,  from  a  de- 
preciation of  the  standard.  With  respect  to  this  class  of  efiects, 
it  is  quite  true  that  the  evils  which  they  involve  will  be  increased 
by  the  rapidity  of  the  depreciation  ;  but  as  I  have  shown,  the  new 
gold  is  producing  efiects  quite  independently  of  its  operation  upon 
fixed  contracts  ;  and  it  is  to  those  other  efiects  that  the  statement 
I  have  just  made  is  intended  to  apply.  The  distinction  which  I 
have  in  view  will  be  best  exemplified  by  recurring  to  the  experi- 
ence of  the  gold  countries.  In  these  the  value  of  gold  fell  by  more 
than  50  per  cent,  in  a  single  year,  the  depreciation  involving  a 

1  For  the  general  ground  of  this  assertion  the  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Mill's  chapters  on 
International  Values,  and  on  Money  as  an  Imported  Commodity,  in  his  "  Principles  of 
Political  Economy;  "  also  to  Mr,  Senior's  Essay  "  On  the  Cost  of  Obtaining  Money." 

'  Article  "  Precious  Metals." 


I 


2IO 


SELECTIONS. 


If: 


i  L.  w, 


Ik 


proportional  loss  to  creditors  with  a  corresponding^  gain  to  debtors, 
and  entailin<^  in  addition  those  numerous  incidental  evils  which 
always  result  from  a  sudden  disturbance  of  social  relations.  No 
one,  however,  on  this  account,  will  say  that  the  sudden  deprecia- 
tion of  gold  in  Australia  and  California  was  not  for  these  countries 
a  great  gain.  The  nature  and  extent  of  that  gain  I  endeavored  on 
a  former  occasion  to  estimate.^  It  consisted,  as  I  showed,  in  the 
increased  command  conferred  by  the  cheapness  of  their  gold  over 
markets  in  which  gold  prices  had  not  proportionally  risen.  With 
every  rise  in  the  price  of  Australian  and  Californian  products, 
or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  with  every  fall  in  the 
local  value  of  their  gold,  their  power  of  purchase  in  foreign 
markets  increased,  —  an  increase  of  purchasing  power  which,  as 
we  know,  was  immediately  followed  by  a  sudden  and  extraordi- 
nary influx  of  foreign  goods.  Now,  precisely  the  same  principle 
applies  in  the  case  of  other  countries.  A  fall  in  the  value  of  gold 
will,  where  gold  is  the  standard,  lead  to  a  disturbance  in  fixed 
contracts,  with  the  concomitant  evils  ;  but  it  will  at  the  same 
time,  as  in  the  case  just  considered,  place  the  countries  in  which 
it  occurs  in  a  better  position  commercially  in  the  markets  of  the 
world.  Supposing,  e.^:,  a  rise  in  j^rices  to  take  place  in  all  com- 
mercial countries  equivalent  to  that  which  has  occurred  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Australia,  the  consequence  would  be  what  I  endeavored 
to  explain  in  the  paper  just  referred  to ;  the  export  of  gold  from 
California  and  Australia,  at  least  on  its  present  scale,  would  at 
once  cease,  and  the  world  would  receive  instead  an  increased 
supply  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  products,  and  of  other  com- 
modities which  those  countries  are  fitted  to  produce,  —  a  result 
which,  I  ventured  to  think,  would  be  again  for  the  world.  On  the 
other  hand,  supposing  the  rise  in  price  to  be  confined  to  a  single 
cotmtry,  —  say  to  England, — then  England  would  at  once  be 
placed  on  a  footing  of  commercial  equality  with  California  and 
Australia,  while  as  regards  other  countries  she  would  occupy  the 
same  vantage-ground  which  California  and  Australia  now  possess. 
She  would,  in  short,  obtain  her  gold  at  half  its  present  cost  (for 
she  would  receive  twice  as  much  as  at  present  in  return  for  the 
same  expenditure  of  labor  and  capital),  while  the  gold  thus 
obtained  would  be  expended  on  foreign  commodities  of  which, 
according  to  the  hypothesis,  the  prices  had  not  risen.      Notwith- 


>  See  Cairnes,  p,  39. 


THE   NF.W   COLD. 


211 


debtors, 
Is  which 
•ns.  No 
leprecia- 
lountries 
voreci  on 
1,  in  the 
;old  over 
.  With 
)rodiicts, 

1  in   the 
foreign 

t'hich,  as 
xtraordi- 
irinciple 

2  of  gold 
in  fixed 

he  same 

in  which 

;ts  of  the 

all  com- 

in  Cali- 

eavored 

Id  from 

ould  at 

ncreased 

er  com- 

a  result 

On  the 

single 

nee  be 

ia  and 

|upy  the 

ossess. 

st  (for 

for  the 

,d   thus 

Iwhich, 

twith- 


standin;:^,  therefore,  the  evils  which  undoubtedly  attend  variations 
in  the  standard  of  value,  more  especially  in  an  c>ld  und  highly 
artificial  community  like  ours,  it  is  nevertheless,  I  maintain,  for 
the  interest  of  every  country,  that,  a  fall  in  the  cost  of  gold  hav- 
ing been  etl'ected,  the  progress  of  depreciation  shoulrl  ///  //  be  as 
rapid  as  possible.  Until,  by  a  depreciation  of  gold  corresponding 
to  that  whicl)  has  occurred  in  California  and  Australia,  the  value 
of  tiiat  metal  is  brought  into  harmony  with  its  cost,  we  must  con- 
tiiuie  to  receive  from  those  countries  little  more  than  a  barren 
addition  to  our  stock  of  money.  But  with  each  successive  step  in 
the  progress  of  depreciation,  there  will  be  for  the  nation  in  which 
it  occurs,  a  ncarei"  approach  to  the  footing  of  commercial  ecjiiality 
with  the  gold  countries  from  which  it  has  been  temporarily  dis- 
placed ;  while  in  its  dealings  with  other  places  wiiere  tlie  decline 
has  l)een  less  raj)id,  the  nation  so  circumstanced  will,  (hiring  the 
period  of  transition,  enjoy  a  commercial  superiority.  As  a  gen- 
eral conclusion,  therefore,  we  may  say,  that  in  proportion  as  in 
any  country  the  local  depreciation  of  gold  is  more  or  less  rapid 
than  the  average  rate  elsewhere,  the  ettect  of  the  monetary  dis- 
turbance will  be  for  that  country  beneficial  or  injurious. 

This  conclusion,  I  may  in  passing  remark,  throws  light  upon  a 
practical  question  of  some  interest  at  the  present  time,  — I  mean 
the  tjuestion  of  introducing  a  gold  currency  into  India.  The 
measure  has  been  advocated  by  Mr.  M'Culloch,  on  the  ground 
that,  by  providing  a  new^  market  for  the  increased  supplies  of 
gold,  its  effect  would  be  to  "  counteract  that  fall  in  its  value  which 
is  so  generally  apprehended."  ^  There  can  be  no  doul)t  that  the 
eriectof  the  measure  woidd  be  what  Mr.  M'Culloch  describes  ;  l)ut, 
if  the  above  reasoning  be  sound,  this  circumstance,  instead  of  being 
a  reason  for  introducinsr  gold  into  the  currencv  of  India,  affords 
{^so  far  as  the  interests  of  India  are  concerned)  a  strong  reason 
against  the  adoption  of  this  course.  Mr.  M'Culloch  does  not  state 
whether  the  eflect  which  he  anticipates  upon  the  value  of  gold 
would  be  general  or  local ;  whether  extending  over  the  whole 
commercial  world,  or  confined  to  the  markets  of  India..  —  a  point 
of  vital  importance  in  determining  the  character  of  the  result.  If 
the  efl\;ct  were  general  —  if,  while  counteracting  depreciation  in 
India,  it  influenced  the  value  of  ^q\A  proportionately  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  —  then  it  must  be   conceded  that  the  result 


III 


M 


>  "  Encycl(ipa;ilia  Britannic;!,"  article  "  Precious  Metals,"  p.  473. 


I'l 


'^ 


k 


212 


SELECTIONS. 


would  be  entirely  beneficial.  The  evils  iiicitlent  to  a  disturbance 
of  fixed  contracts  would  be  avoided,  and  no  others  would  be  in- 
curred. IJut  this  is  just  the  point  which  I  venture  to  deny.  The 
adoption  of  j^old  as  the  monetary  standard  of  India  would 
certainly  not  atVect  the  local  value  of  jj;old  in  Australia  and  Cali- 
fornia ;  for,  as  I  proved  on  a  former  occasion,  the  value  of  gold 
in  these  countries  is  determined  by  its  cost,  and  its  cost  depends 
on  the  productiveness  of  the  gold-fields.  Nor,  for  reasons  which 
will  be  iiereafter  stated,  would  it  inlluence  more  than  in  a  slight 
degree  the  range  of  gold-prices  in  England  and  the  United  States. 
The  operation,  therefore,  of  the  measure  would  be  to  depress  g(jld- 
priccs  in  India,  or,  at  least,  to  prevent  them  from  rising  in  that 
quarter  as  rapidly  as  they  otherwise  would  ;  while  in  California 
and  Australia,  in  England  and  the  United  States,  it  left  their  course 
substantially  unallccted.  Now,  this  result  would  tend  undoubtedly 
to  the  advantage  of  California  and  Australia,  of  England  and  the 
United  States,  but,  as  it  seems  to  me,  would  as  clearly  be  injurious 
to  India.  The  purchasing  jiovver  of  the  former  countries  over  the 
markets  of  India  would,  through  the  relative  superiority  of  their 
prices,  be  increasetl,  but  the  purchasing  power  of  India  over  their 
markets  would,  for  the  opposite  reason,  be  diminished.  An  Eng- 
lish or  American  merchant,  instead  of  discharging  bis  debts,  as  at 
present,  through  the  medium  of  silver  which  he  has  to  pincbase 
with  gold  at  62(1.  per  ounce  (and  may  soon  have  to  purchase  at  a 
higher  rate),  might  discharge  the  same  debts  with  gold  directly  ; 
and  gold  being  by  hypothesis  more  valuable  in  India  than  before, 
the  same  amount  would  of  course  go  farther.  IJut  an  Indian 
purchaser  of  English  or  American  commodities  would  have  the 
same  sum  in  gold  to  pay  as  if  no  change  had  taken  place  in  the 
currency  of  India  ;  while  the  gold  prices  of  his  native  productions 
being  lower,  his  ability  to  pay  would  of  course  be  less.  It  seems 
to  me,  therefore  (and  the  considerations  here  adduced  are  entirely 
independent  of  the  reasons  which  exist  on  the  score  of  good  faith 
—  the  Indian  debt  having  been  contracted  in  a  silver  currency), 
that,  viewing  the  matter  from  the  side  of  Indian  interests,  the 
introduction  of  a  j;old  currency  into  India  must  be  regarded  as  a 
measure  decidedly  detrimental.^ 


•  Referrin};^  to  the  adoption  of  a  silver  standard  by  Holland  in  1S51,  Mr.  M'CuUoch  char- 
acterizes it  as  a  measure  ' '  in  opposition  to  all  sound  principles."  I  eonless  I  am  at  a  loss 
to  conjecture  what  sound  principle  was  violated  in  preferring  as  the  standard  of  v;ilue  that 
metal,  the  value  of  which  there  was  every  reason  to  believe  would  be  the  steadier  of  the 


\ 


'II  IK    M;\V    COM). 


213 


tiirbancc 
(1  be  iii- 
y.     The 
vvoiilcl 
lul  Cali- 
:  of  gokl 
(IcpcMuls 
IS  wliicli 
a  slight 
(1  States, 
ess  g(jl(l- 
f  in  that 
•al  iff)  in  ill 
ir  ccnirse 
(nil)tc(lly 
1  and  the 
injurious 
over  the 
•  of  their 
vcr  their 
/\n  Eng- 
)ts,  as  at 
purchase 
ase  at  a 
lirectly  ; 
before, 
Indian 
tiave  the 
in  the 
[luctions 
It  seems 
lentirely 
>d  faith 
hency), 
|sts,  the 
id  as  a 


|och  char- 

at  a  loss 

k-;ilue  that 

ler  of  the 


Returning  once  more  to  the  general  (jnestion,  we  may  consider 
the  following  conclusions  as  established:  1st,  that  the  elVect  of 
the  cheapening  ol  gold  upon  commercial  countries  l)eing  to  com- 
pel them  to  enlarge  their  metallic  currencies,  for  which  enlarge- 
ment the}'  must  pay  by  an  expoit  of  their  j^roductions,  each 
country  will  endure  a  loss  upon  this  head  to  the  extent  of  the  ad- 
ditional sum  which  may  be  requisite  for  each  ;  and.  idly,  that 
while  there  will  be  a  general  loss  from  this  cause,  yet  the  progress 
of  depreciation  over  the  world  not  being  uniform  or  simultaneous, 
the  primary  loss  niay,  through  the  disturbance  in  international 
values  tiionce  arising,  in  particular  cases,  be  compensated,  or  even 
converted  into  a  positive  gain  ;  the  loss  or  gain  upon  the  disturb- 
ance being  determined  according  as  the  rise  of  prices  in  any 
countrv  is  in  advance  or  in  arrear  of  the  general  average.  To 
ascertain,  therefore,  the  etVect  of  the  movement  upon  any  particu- 
lar nation,  we  must  consider  the  maimer  in  which,  in  its  case, 
these  two  principles  will  operate. 

With  respect  to  the  tirst,  I  am  aware  that,  in  speaking  of  the 
loss  imposed  on  a  country  by  the  necessity  of  enlarging  its  cur- 
rency,—  by  the  necessity  of  receiving  and  keeping  increased 
supplies  of  gold  and  silver,  — I  am  using  language  which,  notwith- 
standing what  was  said  on  a  former  occasion  in  its  justification, 
and  notwithstanding  that  it  is  merely  in  strict  conformity  with  the 
most  elementary  principles  of  economic  science,  will  still  appear 
paradoxical  to  many.  1  would,  therefore,  before  proceeding  farther 
with  this  branch  of  the  argument,  ask  the  reader  to  consider  the 
case  of  a  private  merchant  who  is  compelled  to  increase  the  stock 
of  cash  with  which  he  carries  on  his  business.  The  metallic 
circulation  of  a  country  performs  in  relation  to  the  community 
functions  precisely  analogous  to  those  which  are  discharged  for  a 
merchant  by  his  cash  reserve.  If  a  merchant  can  safely  dispense 
with  a  portion  of  his  ready  cash,  he  is  enabled,  with  the  money 


two.  [I  may  say  now  (1S72)  tliat  I  am  disposed  to  assijjii  imii-h  k'ss  itnportance  to  this 
question  of  a  chany;c  in  the  monetary  standard  of  India  than  I  did  when  tlie  above  passajje 
was  written.  The  reasoning  assuniLS  tlie  possibility  of  a  serious  diverj^;ence  in  tlie  relative 
values  of  gold  and  silver;  but  I  now  believe  tliat  such  a  divergence  is  practically  out  of  the 
question,  the  grounds  for  which  opinion  will  be  found  farther  on  {poat^  p.  141).  This 
circumstance,  however,  does  not  affect  the  theoretic  point  argued  with  Mr.  M'C'ulloch.  If 
the  exchange  of  the  existing  silver  for  a  gold  standard  in  India  were  calculated  to  produce 
the  eflects  Mr.  M'CuUoch  expected  from  it,  the  measure,  it  still  seems  to  ine,  would  be  open 
to  the  objecticms  I  have  urged  against  it.  Hut  I  do  not  believe  that  the  eflects  in  question 
would  result;  and  I  can  well  conceive  that,  having  regard  to  the  general  convenience  of 
commerce,  the  change  might,  on  the  whole,  be  advantageous.] 


hi 
Ji 


m 


■:-j>' 


I'l 


II 


i|; 


:|  It 


in 


< 


IP 


'it  .( 


214 


SEI.IX'TIONS. 


thus  liberated,  cither  to  add  to  his  piochictive  capital,  or  to  ii)creasc 
his  private  expenditure.  Ou  the  other  hand,  if  he  llnds  it  neces- 
sary to  increase  his  reserve  of  cash,  his  productive  capital  must 
he  proportionally  encroached  upon,  or  his  private  expenditure 
proportionally  curtailed.  And  precisely  tlie  same  may  he  said 
of  the  cunency  of  a  nation.  Wiiere  a  country  does  not  itself 
yield  ^old  or  silver,'  every  increase  of  its  metallic  circulation 
must  he  ohtained — can  only  he  obtained  —  hy  jiartin<f  with  certain 
elements  of  real  wealth,  —  elements  which,  hut  for  this  necessity, 
mi<fht  he  made  conducive  to  its  well-hein;^.  It  is  in  eiiahlino^  a  na- 
tion to  reducewithin  the  narrowest  limits  this  unproductive  portion 
of  its  stock  that  the  ciiief  advanta_<j;e  of  a  tfood  hanUiiii;;  system  con. 
sists  ;  and  if  the  auj^mentation  of  tiie  metallic  currency  of  a  country 
be  not  an  evil,  then  it  is  diflicidt  to  see  in  what  way  the  institution 
of  banks  is  a  good.  In  regarding,  therefore,  the  necessity  imposed 
upon  commercial  countries  of  cnlari^inj^  their  metallic  currencies 
as  injurious  to  their  interests,  I  make  no  assumption  w  hich  is  not 
in  perfect  keepin<^  with  the  best  known  and  most  geneialiy  reco<:j- 
ni/ed  facts  of  commercial  experience. 

An  increase  in  the  metallic  currency  of  a  coimtry,  then,  being 
an  evil,  let  us  consider  what  the  circumstances  are  by  which  the 
auiijmentation  rendered  necessary  by  the  gold  discoveries  will  he 
determined.  This,  it  is  evident,  will  principally  depend — the 
amount  of  business  to  be  carried  on  l)eing  given  —  on  the  extent 
to  which  substitutes  for  metallic  money  are  in  use  ;  in  other  words, 
on  the  degree  of  perfection  which  the  baidving  system  of  each 
country  has  attained.  To  illustrate  this,  let  us  suppose  a  given 
sum  of  metallic  money  —  say  a  million  sterling — to  be  intro- 
duced into  two  countries  in  which  the  currencies  are  diflerently 
constituted,  —  eg-.,  into  England  and  India.  In  India  coin  is  the 
principal  medium  of  circulation"  —  in  many  parts  the  only  one, 


'  Even  wlifre  it  docs  yield  these  metals,  the  necessity  of  iiujfincntinjr  the  currency  is  not 
the  less  an  evil,  since  the  operation  will  occupy,  with  no  result  hut  that  ol  avoidin-c  an  in- 
convenience, a  portion  of  the  labor  and  capital  of  the  country,  which,  but  for  this,  might 
have  contributed  to  its  positive  welfare. 

2  [The  reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  this  was  written  in  1S50.  The  state  of  the  Indian 
currency  at  that  time  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  extracts  from  a  paper  on  "  The 
Trade  and  Commerce  of  India,"  read  before  the  Kritish  Association  in  1S59.]  "  Intimately 
connected  with  Indian  trade  and  commerce  is  a  sound  system  of  banking.  At  present  there 
are  only  three  banks  of  importance  in  India,  —  the  banks  of  Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Madras. 
These  have  no  branches,  the  absence  of  which  constitutes  one  of  the  main  defects  of  the 
system.  The  few  other  banks  in  India  do  not  issue  notes,  and  employ  their  capital  in  mak- 
ing advances  on  bills  of  lading,  in  exchange  operations,  and  in  some  instances  in  loans  to 
members  of  the  Service,  at  high  rates  uf  interest;  but  afford   no  banking  facilities  for  con- 


THE   NF.W    COM). 


21 


intro- 
[erently 
is  the 
one. 


ley  IS  not 

i^  an   in- 

\s,  nii^ht 

Indiim 
|)n  "  The 
timatcly 
it  there 
Madras, 
if  the 
lin  mak- 
loans  to 
ttbr  con. 


and  consequently  a  million  sterling;  IntrodiK-cd  into  the  currency 
of  India  would  represent  otdy  an  ecjual.  or  little  more  than  an 
ecjual,  addition  to  its  total  medium  ot"  circulation  —  to  the  whole 
monetary  machiner\'  hv  which  the  e\clian<re  of  commodities  is 
edected  and  prices  maintained.  But  in  ICn^dand,  where  the  cur- 
rency is  dill'erently  constituted,  the  result  would  he  ditl'erent.  The 
<jreat  hulk  of  the  circulatinj:^  medium  of  this  country  consists  of 
certain  forms  of  credit ;  and  the  amount  of  these  credit  media 
staudin<ij  in  a  ceitain  larj^e  proportion  to  the  coin  in  the  coimtry, 
the  etVect  of  introducin<^  a  million  sterlin<^  into  onr  cuirency 
woidd  be  to  increase  the  medium  of  circulation  hv  an  amount  very 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  added  coin.  Let  us  consider  for 
a  moment  what  becomes  of  a  sum  of  coin  or  bullion  received  into 
Enjifland.  I  do  not  now  speak  of  that  movin^jf  mass  of  metal 
which  passes  (so  to  speak)  through  the  currency  of  the  country, 
—  which,  received  to-ilay  into  the  \aults  of  the  lJaid<  of  I*2n<;land, 
is  witlidrawn  to-morrow  for  foreij^n  remittance.  —  but  of  gold, 
which  is  permanently  retained  to  meet  our  geiuune  monetarv  re- 
quirements. Of  such  gold  a  portion — greater  or  less,  according 
to  circumstances  —  will  always  find  its  way  into  the  chamiels  of 
retail  trade  ;  and  so  far  as  it  follows  this  course,  its  ellect  in  aug- 
menting the  circulation  will  be,  as  in  India,  oidy  to  the  extent  of 
its  actual  amount.  Hut  a  ]3ortion  will  also  be  received  into  the 
banks  of  the  coimtry,  where,  either  in  the  form  of  coin,  or  of 
notes  issued  against  coin,  it  will  constitute  an  addition  to  their 
cash  reserves.     The  disposable  cash  of  the  banks  being  thus  in- 


ducting  the  internal  trade  of  the  country."  The  writer  then  refe-s  to  ii  table,  showinij  the 
state  of  the  three  leadinif  hanks  (licnyal,  RoinHay.  and  Madras)  in  the  pri'cedintj;  June, 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  hullion  at  that  time  in  the  cotVers  of  the  hanks  was  /;/  «-.v(r,«,s 
of  the  notes  in  circulation,  the  amount  of  these  latter  beinj^,  for  the  whole  of  India, 
£2, 24i,47t,  or  about  one. tenth  of  the  amount  issued  by  the  Bank  of  Kni;!an(l  alone;  while 
the  total  amount  of"  accounts  current  "  was  cmly  £  i,S_vS,oon,  —  about  one-sixth  of  those  held 
by  some  of  the  private  hanks  of  I.ondim,  and  not  one-filleenth  of  those  of  the  Hank  of 
Kngland.  The  total  amouiu  of  commercial  bills  discounted  in  these  three  leadinjj  banks  of 
India  is  set  <lown  at  £278,906!  "  And  this,"  it  is  observed,  "  in  a  country  where  the  jfniss 
annual  revenue  is  £,54,(xx),txxi;  the  export  triide,  on  an  averajje  of  the  last  five  years, 
£24,000,000;  the  import  trade,  on  the  same  averatje,  £2.},0(xi,ooo,  with  an  internal  trade  to 
an  extent  almost  impossible  to  estimate."  ( " 'fhe  Trade  anil  Commerce  of  India,"  by 
J.  T.  Mackenzie,  read  before  the  British  Association,  1859,  pp.  15,  10.)  In  tlie  evidence 
taken  before  the  late  Committee  "  On  Colonization  and  Settlement  in  India,"  Mr.  Alexander 
Forbes,  when  questioned  with  reference  to  the  lar^e  absorpticm  of  silver  in  Inilia,  expressed 
his  opinion  that  the  silver  was  all  required  for  current  coin.  "  It  has  often  been  saiil  that 
the  natives  hoard  silver.  Now  my  experience  is  that  they  do  not  hoard  silver;  they  hoard 
gold;  and  that  the  silver  is  actually  required  for  the  commerce  of  the  country."  .Vnd  this 
he  traces  (Answers  2,222,  2,223,  2i.?7^-So)  to  the  want  of  banking  accommodation  and  the 
imperfect  means  of  communication  generally  in  the  country.  See  al.so  the  evidence  of  Mr- 
Mangles  (Answers  11625-1,633). 


I) 


W  L/^ 


2l6 


SKI.KCTIONS. 


i 


r 


creasi'd,  an  increase  of  ctcdil  operations  ihrouj^liont  the  eonntry 
would    in  dne  time   lullow.     'I"hc   new  coin   would   l)econie   the 
fonndation   of  new  credit   advances,  aj^ainst  wliich    new  checks 
would  he  drawn,  and  new  hills  of  exchaniife  put    in   circulation, 
and   the   result  would   he  an  expansion    of"  the  whole  circulating; 
niediiun  ^^reatly  in  excess  of  the  sum  of  coin  hy  which   the   new 
media  weie  supported.   Now,  credit,  whatever  he  the  foi  m  which 
it  assumes,  so  lonjj^  as  it  is  credit^  will  (tperate  in  ]iurchases,  and 
alVect   prices  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  it'  it  were  actually  the 
coin  which  it  represents.     So   tar  forth,   therefore,  as  the  new 
money  enahles  the  country  to  support  an  increase  of  such  credit 
media,  — to  support  them,  I  mean,  hy  cash  payments,  —  so  far  it 
extends  the  means  of  sustainin,:;  j^old-prices  in  the  country  ;  and 
this  extension  of  the  circulatin<;  medium  hein<j  much  greater  than 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  added  coin,  the  means  of  sustain- 
in;;  <;old-prices  will  he  in  the  same  degree  increased.    Thus,  sup- 
posing; th'.>  ratio  of  the  credit  to  the  coin  circulation  of  the  country 
to  he  as  four  to  one  (and  the  j^roportion   is   j^reatly  in  excess  of 
this),  the  addition  of  one  million  sterlin<;  of  coin  would  he  ecpiiv- 
alent  to  an  increase  in  the  a<;<i;refj;ate  circulation  of  four  millions 
sterlint;,'  and  one  million  sterling;  of  <;old  would  conseijuentlv,  in 
En<;land,  for  a  j;iven  extent  of  husiness,  support  the  same  advance 
in  <;old-prices  as  four  times  that  amount  in  India.    It  follows  from 
these  considerations,  that,  in  order  to  raise  prices  throu«;hout  a 
given  range  of  transactions  to  any  recpiired  level,  the  quantity  of 
metallic   money  which  will   be   necessary  will  vary   in   dilVerent 
countries,  according  to  the  constitution  of  their  currencies  ;  the 
requirements  of  each  increasing  generally  in  an  inverse  ratio  with 
the  elKciency  of  its  banking  institutions. 

We  may  thus  see  how  very  unequal  will  be  the  operation  of  the 
gold  discoveries  with  respect  to  commercial  communities.  The 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  gold  to  which  they  have  led  has,  as  we 
have  seen,  produced  in  the  gold  countries  a  twofold  rise  of  gold- 
prices  ;  and  supposing  the  present  conditions  of  raising  gold  to 

'  Strictly  spoil  king',  this  conclusion  would  not  follow  on  the  above  supposition,  the  ef- 
ficicncv  of  different  forms  of  credit  in  performing  the  work  of  circuliUion  beiny;  (as  pointed 
out  by  Mr.  Mill,  "  Principles  of  Political  Economy,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  58-61)  different,  and  only 
some  of  them  beinjj  in  this  respect  equal  to  coin.  But  such  distinctions  do  not  affect  the 
general  truth  of  the  principle  contended  for  in  the  text,  that  the  necessity  for  coin  varies 
inversely  with  the  use  of  credit.  Besides,  as  I  intimated,  the  proportion  of  credit  to  coin 
in  our  circulation  is  much  greater  than  I  have  assumed;  and  a  million  of  coin  taken  into 
our  currency  would  really  be  equivalent  to  more  than  four  millions  added  to  a  purely  met.illic 
oue. 


i 


pi  of  the 

The 

as  we 

goUl- 

•][olcl  to 

III,  tlic  ef- 
K  pointed 
liind  only 
Iflfct  Die 
|in  varies 
;  to  coin 
ten  into 
Imctallic 


IlIK    NKW    C.OIJI. 


217 


coiitiiiiie,  the  s.inio  cause  tmist  ultimately  lead  to  the  saiiu'  result 
thntuj^lioiit  the  world  :  iniposinj^  upon  each  couiiti y  the  necessity 
ot  so  eular'rin';  its  ciineiicv  as  t(»  admit  of"  this  advance.  Iliit  we 
have  seen  that  the(|nantity  recjuisite  for  this  piii'pi)se  varies  accord- 
in,tf  to  the  monetary  status  of  the  coinitry  for  which  it  is  leqniied  ; 
and  inasmuch  as  the  new  money  must  be  paid  for  by  cj)mmodities, 
the  abstraction  of  conunodities,  and  theiefore  the  loss  of  the 
means  of  well-l)ein<^,  to  wiiich  each  countrv  must  submit,  \n  ill 
vary  with  tlie  same  circumstance.  On  the  supposition,  tiierefore, 
on  which  we  are  arj^uinj^,  the  (juantitv  of  new  money  which  ICnjj;- 
land  would  re(|uire  would  be,  when  compared  with  the  extent  of 
her  business,  extremely  small,  and  her  loss  of  real  wealth  small 
proportionally.  Tiie  same  would  be  true  of  the  I'nited  States, 
where  credit  institutions  have  also  attained  a  hij^h  deL^ree  of  ef- 
ficiencv,  and  whose  paper  conse(|uently  forms  a  larj^e  proportion 
of  the  whole  circulation.  In  France,  the  use  of  credit  beinjjfmore 
restricted,  the  retiuirements  tor  coin  would  be  <jfreater,  and  con- 
sequently also  the  loss  of  consumable  commodities  ;  while  in  Inilia 
and  China,  and  indeed  in  Asiatic  communities  <jeneralh ,  the  cir- 
culatin<r  medium  bein<^  almost  purely  metallic,  the  re(|uirements 
for  coin  would,  in  proportion  to  the  business  in  w  liich  it  was  em- 
ployed, attain  their  maximum,  with  a  corresponding  maximum  of 
loss  in  the  elements  of  well-beiuf^.' 

The  operation  of  this  principle  is  indeed,  in  the  actual  circimi- 
stances  of  the  world,  in  some  tlegree  concealed  by  the  complex 
conditions  under  which  it  comes  into  play.  Thus  (ireat  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  instead  of  obtaining  the  smallest  shares, 
receive  in  the  first  instance  nearly  the  whole  of  the  new  gold.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  quantity  which  goes  to  India  and  China  t"rt)m 
the  gold  countries  is  comparatively  trifling;-'  and  although  a  large 


'  It  is  curious  to  otisene  the  contradictions  in  wliich  persons  ;irc  involved  wlio,  still  under 
the  influence  ol'  tlie  mercantile  theory  of  wealth  (and  there  are  few  even  aMionu  professed 
economists  who  are  free  from  its  influence),  are  nevertheless  sensible  from  experience  of  the 
advantaf^es  of  a  system  with  which  it  is  incompatible.  Thus  several  witnesses  before  the 
late  Committee  on  Indian  Colonization  refer  to  the  la.fje  influx  of  silver  into  India  in  recent 
years  as  a  sure  indication  of  the  increasinf^  prosperity  f)f  that  country  ;  vet,  almost  in  the  same 
breath,  they  speak  of  the  deficiency  of  hankintf  accommodation  as  amony  its  most  pressinjj 
wants.  Now,  it  is  certain  tlint,  just  in  proportion  as  bankinjf  acconimodation  is  e.xteiuled, 
the  absorption  of  silver  by  India  will  decline;  whence  it  would  fcjllow,  if  the  reasoning  of 
the  witnesses  be  sound,  that  the  cfTect  of  the  extension  of  banks  would  be  to  check  the 
growing;  prosperity  of  the  country.     See  "  Minutes  of  P^vidence,"   Qjieslions  i  ,'>J5-i,f>3J, 

2,22I-2,22.V 

2  This  order  in  the  diffusion  of  the  new  gold  has  not  been  susUiined.  See  anii;  p.  i<)S, 
note. 


Wl  : 


!'■  i^ 


flf 


i 

y- 

1 

•f 

Hii 


■i 


I 


I  If' 


218 


SKI.KCTIONS. 


drain  of  treasure  has  set  in  tliillicr  tiDm  I'-iiropc,  yet  tliis  consists 
chielly  of  silver.  ]f,  however,  passiiij^;  by  the  accidents  of  the 
movement,  we  attend  to  its  essentials,  we  shall  find  that  the  re- 
sults are  entirely  conformable  to  the  princi|)le  I  have  endeavored 
to  describe.  For  thou<^h  the  bulk  of  the  new  j^ohl  comes  in  the 
first  instance  to  I"In^land  and  the  United  States,  —  determined 
thither  by  the  course  of  international  ilemand, —  yet  l'2nt;land  and 
the  I  iiited  States  do  not  form  its  ultimate  destination.  The 
monetary  requirements  of  these  countries  bein<^  easily  satisfied, 
the  mass  of  the  metal,  on  reachinjj^  these  markets,  becomes  im- 
mediately disposable  for  forei;j;n  pui chases;  by  which  means  the 
United  States  ami  l'2n<;land  are  enabled  to  transfer  to  other 
countries  this  unprofitable  stock,  the  commoditii's  with  wiiicli  in 
the  first  instance  they  parted  bein^  replaced  by  others  which  they 
more  require.  So  also,  althou<^ii  the  metallic  drain  to  the  East  is 
composeil  principally  of  silver,  the  efllux  —  at  least  in  its  present 
proportions —  is  not  the  less  certainly  the  conse(|uence  of  the  in- 
creaseil  production  of  ij^old  ;  for  the  silver  of  which  it  consists  has 
been  displaced  from  the  currencies  of  lunope  aiul  America  by  the 
«>old  of  ^Vustralia  and  California;  and  the  drain  to  the  East  is 
only  not  a  <^olden  one,  because  silver  alone  is  in  that  region  the 
reco<jnized  standard.  As  the  Hnal  result  of  the  whole  movement, 
we  find  that,  while  the  metallic  systems  of  England  and  the 
Uuiteil  States  are  receivinj^  but  small  permanent  accessions,  those 
of  India  and  China  are  absorbinjj;  enorijious  supplies.  The  former 
countries,  thouj^jh  the  fust  recipients  of  the  treasure,  yet,  not  re- 
quiring it  for  domestic  purposes,  are  enabletl  to  shift  the  burden 
to  others,  whose  real  wealth  they  command  in  exchange  ;  while 
the  latter,  requiring  what  they  receive,  are  compelled  to  retain  it. 
Having  parted  with  their  commodities  for  the  new  n^.oney,  they 
are  unable  at'terwards  to  replace  them.  As  their  stock  of  coin 
increases,  their  means  of  well-being  decline,  and  they  become  the 
permanent  victims  of  the  monetary  disturbance. 

But,  secondly,  we  conclude  that  the  loss  of  real  wealth  result- 
ing from  the  augmentation  of  their  currencies  would  in  particular 
countries  be  compensated,  and  might  in  some  be  even  converted 
into  positive  gain,  by  the  disturbance  which,  during  the  period  of 
transition,  would  take  place  in  international  values.  As  has  been 
already  remarked,  a  general  rise  of  prices  in  all  countries,  if  si- 
multaneous and  imiform, — since  it  leaves  the  proportions  in  which 
commodities  are  exchanged  undisturbed,  —  leads  to  no  change  in 


I 


■ 


Tin-:   NEW    (JOLI). 


219 


iiitcniational  \:iliies,  and  produces  no  cflbct  upon  national  inter- 
ests. IJut  where  pi  ices  rise  une(iually,  international  v  'nes,  antl 
tlirou<fh  these,  nati(»nal  interests,  are  atlected.  We  have  there- 
fore to  consitirr  liow  far,  in  the  aclnal  circnnistances  of  the  world, 
a  rise  of  prices  in  particnlar  countries,  unaccon;,)anied   hy  a  coi- 


respondin 


dvai 


nee  m  others,  is  possil)le,  and,  in  so  tar  as  it  is 
possihle,  in  what  order  the  several  chanj^es  may  he  expected  to 
occur. 

As  rcLCitrds  the  (juestion  of  possil)ility,  this  is  placed  hevond 
controversy  by  the  example  of  California  and  Australia.  It  is  a 
matter  of  fact  that  prices  in  those  rej^ions  have  advanced  in  a 
twofold  proportion,  while  no  c(jrrespondin<^  rise  of  prices  has 
occurred  thi"ou>4hout  the  world.  The  circumstances,  however,  of 
the  j;old  countries  will  probably  be  thouj^ht  of  too  exceptional 
a  character  to  form  the  basis  of  any  <;eneral  conclusion  ;  and  it 
will  therefore  be  desirable  to  advert  tor  a  moment  to  the  causes 
which  produced  in  California  and  Australia  that  local  elevation 
of  price,  with  a  view  to  consider  how  far  the  same  conditions  are 
cajjable  of  l)ein;j^  realized  elsewhere. 

These  causes,  as  was  formerly^shown,'  were  the  special  facili- 
ties for  produciii"^  K^'l''  enjoyed  by  California  and  Australia,  com- 
bined with  the  limited  ranj^e  of  their  domestic  transactions.  'J'he 
sudden  cheapeninj^  of  jjfold,  involvinj^  a  correspou(lin<;  increase 
in  money  earninijs,  placed  an  extraordinary  premium  on  the 
production  of  the  metal,  while  the  limited  ranj^e  of  their  domestic 
trade  rendered  the  necessary  l.Mdar<rement  of  their  monetary 
systems  an  easy  task.  On  the  other  hand,  the  immense  extent  of 
the  afji^rej^ate  commerce  of  the  world  recpiired,  in  order  t(j  secure 
a  similar  advance,  a  proportional  increase  in  its  atjt^rej^ate  stock 
of  money,  an  augmentation  which  could  only  be  accomplished 
after  the  lapse  of  a  considerable  time.  Prices  therefore  rose 
rapidly  in  the  gold  countries,  while  over  the  area  of  general 
commerce  the  rise  had  been  but  slow. 

.Such  being  the  circumstances  wliich  produced  the  local  diver- 
gence of  prices  to  wliich  I  have  called  attention,  it  will  at  once  be 
seen  that  of  the  two  conditions  which  I  have  stated,  the  latter  — 
the  necessary  enlargement  of  the  local  currency — may  in  most 
countries,  though  not  in  all  at  the  same  time,  he  fulfilled,  if  not 
with  the   same  rapitlity  as  in  Australia  and   California,  still  after 


»  See  Cainies,  pp.  2$,  26. 


iM 


ifii 


220 


SELECTIONS. 


no  very  long  delay.  It  has  been  computed,'  for  example,  that 
the  total  quantity  of  gold  coin  circulating  in  Great  Britain  amounts 
to  .£7^,000,000  sterling.  Assuming  this  to  l)e  correct,  it  would 
follow  (all  other  conditions  being  supposed  identical)  that  an  ad- 
dition of  £175,000.000  would  be  sufficient  to  elVect  an  elevation  of 
our  local  prices  equivalent  to  that  which  has  occurred  in  Austra- 
lia. Now,  at  the  present  rate  of  production,  the  quantity  of  gold 
which  arrives  annually  in  Great  Britain  cannot  fall  much  short  of 
£30,000,000  sterling;  ^  so  that  were  we  merely  to  retain  all  that 
we  receive,  wc  shoidd  at  the  end  wo  years  and  a  half  be  in  a 

position,  so  far  as  the  augmcn.at:  of  our  currency  is  concerned, 
to  maintain  the  same  advance  in  price  as  has  occurred  in  tiie  gold 
countries.  If,  then,  prices  in  Great  Britain  have  not  risen  in 
the  same  degree,  the  result,  it  is  evident,  cannot  be  due  to  the 
difficulty  of  procuring  the  supply  of  gold  necessary  for  the  en- 
largement of  our  currency.  It  remains,  therefore,  to  be  con- 
sidered how  far  those  special  facilities  for  procuring  gold  which 
have  operated  in  the  gold  countries  may  come  into  play  in  other 
parts  of  the  world. 

The  extraordinary  facilities  for  procuring  gold  enjoyed  by 
Australia  and  California  depend,  of  course,  on  the  possession  of 
their  gold  mines;  and  this  being  so,  it  might  seem  as  if  all 
countries,  not  being  like  them  auriferous,  were  l)y  the  nature  of 
the  case  precluded  from  fuUiUing  this  condition  of  the  problem  ; 
but  this  by  no  means  necessarily  follows,  as  will  be  evident  if  we 
reflect  that  there  are  other  modes  of  obtaining  gold  than  by  direct 
production,  of  which  modes  the  efficiency  enjoyed  by  diHerent 
countries  ditVers  almost  as  much  as  the  degrees  of  fertility  in  dif- 
ferent gold  mines.  Where  countries  do  not  themselves  produce 
gold,  the  mode  by  which  they  obtain  it  is  through  their  foreign 
trade.  Now,  it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  economists  ^  that,  with 
reference  to  the  cost  of  commodities,  the  terms  on  which  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  difl'er  greatly  in  diffierent  countries,  the  labor  of 


•"History  of  Prices,"  vol.  vi.,  App.  xxii.  This  also  is  Mr.  M'CiilIoch's  cstinuitc: 
"  Kncyclopu'diii  Hritaiinica,"  article  "  I'rccious  Metals,"  j).  465.  [It  will  be  home  in  iiiiiul 
that  these  estimates  apply  to  tlie  period  itnniediutely  preceding  the  first  publication  of  these 
Essays  (iS59-(')o).] 

"  [£20,000,000  would  have  been  nearer  the  mark,  but  at  the  time  tliis  paper  was  written 
no  trustworthy  statistics  of  gold  imports  existed.  Either  amount,  however,  answers  equally 
well  the  purpose  of  the  argument  (1S72).] 

'See  Kicardo's  "Works,"  chap,  vii.,  on  Foreign  Trade.  Mill's  "Principles  of 
Political  Economy,"  chaps,  xvii.,  xix.  Also,  Senior's  Essay,  "  On  the  Cost  of  Obtaining 
Money." 


ii^ 


^n!]i 


'     N 


THE   NEW    GOLD. 


221 


some  jjoinj:^  much  farther  in  commanding  forciji^n  productions 
than  that  of  others.  According,  however,  to  the  conditions  on 
which  foreign  productions  generally  arc  obtainahle,  will  be 
those  on  which  gold  may  be  obtained.  If  a  country  possess 
special  facilities  for  supplying  markets  where  gold  can  be  given  in 
exchange,  it  will  obtain  its  gold  more  cheaply — at  a  less  sacrifice 
of  labor  and   capital  —  than   countries  which  do   not  share  these 


facilities,   and  amonefst    such  countries  it   will  therefore   occi 


ipy 


precisely  the  same  position  as  an  auriferous  country  whose  mines 
are  of  more  than  the  usual  richness  amone:  the  countries  which 
yield  gold.  It  is  thus  possible  for  a  non-auriferous,  no  less  than 
for  an  auriferous  country  to  possess  exceptional  facilities  in  the 
means  of  jjrocuring  gold,  and  therefore  to  fulhl  the  second  of  the 
conditions  by  which  a  divergence  of  local  prices  from  the  ordi- 
nary level  of  the  world  may  be  effected. 

Now,  it  appears  to  me  there  are  ♦^wo  countries  which  possess 
in  an  eminent  degree  the  tiualilications  requisite  for  attaining  this 
result  —  I  mean  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  :  the  former, 
as  being /a;'  excellence  the  great  manufacturer  among  civilized 
nations,  —  the  manufacturer  more  particularly  of  descriptions  of 
goods,  —  as  cotton,  woollen,  linen,  and  iron,  which  enter  largely 
into  the  consumption  of  the  classes  by  whom  chiefly  tlie  gold 
countries  are  peopled  ;  and  the  latter,  as  the  principal  producer  of 
raw  material,  as  well  as  of  certain  commodities  —  as  grain,  to- 
bacco, sugar,  and  rice  —  which  are  also  largely  consumed  by  the 
same  classes.  In  these  circumstances.  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  enjoy  peculiar  advantages  in  the  markets  of  the  gold- 
countries,  and  these  advantages  are  extended  and  confirmed  by 
other  important  incidents  of  their  position.  Thus  thev  possess 
the  greatest  mercantile  marine  in  the  world,  by  which  they  are 
enabled  to  give  the  fullest  scope  to  their  manufacturing  and 
agricultural  superiority,  while  by  race,  language,  and  religion  they 
arc  intimately  connected  with  the  producers  of  the  new  gold, — 
a  connection  from  which  spring  ties,  moral,  social,  and  political, 
to  strengthen  and  secure  those  which  commerce  creates.  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  thus  possess  in  their  foreign  trade  a 
rich  mine,'  worked  by  their  manufacturers,  planters,  and  farmers, 
tended   l)y  their  meicantile  marine,  and  protected  by  their  naval 

'  "  The  mine  worked  by  England  is  the  jrencral  market  of  tlie  world;  tlie  miners  are 
those  who  produce  those  commodities  by  tlie  exportation  of  which  tlie  precious  metals  are 
obtained."  —  Seniok's;  Essay  "  On  the  Cost  of  ObtatHing  Money  "  p.  15. 


i 

:  I 

1 

4 

1 

i:,:_t»- 


**  m 


222 


SELrXTIONS. 


ill! 


mm 


!    / 


at 

III  ir 


power,  — a  mine  b}'  means  of  wliich  they  arc  enabled  to  obtain 
their  ^oUl  on  terms  more  favorable  than  other  nations.  The  etlect 
of  this,  in  ordinary  times,  is  shown  by  a  scale  of  money  rates. 
^vafJes,  salaries,  and  incomes,  permanently  hi<^herthan  that  which 
elsewhere  prevails;  but  in  times  of  monetary  disturbance  liUe 
the  present,  when  the  cost  of  gold  having;  been  reduced  its  value 
is  fallintij,  these  advantages,  it  seems  to  me,  must  tell,  as  analo- 
gous advantages  have  told  in  the  gold  countries,  in  a  more  rapid 
realization  of  the  results  which  are  in  store, —  in  a  quicker  ascent 
towards  that  higher  level  of  prices  and  incomes  which  the 
cheapened  cost  of  gold  is  destined  ultimately  to  produce. 

There  is  reason,  therefore,  on  considerations  of  theory,  to  expect 
a  repetition  in  England  and  America  of  that  phenomenon  which 
has  been  already  exhibited  in  Australia  and  California,  — a  diver- 
g;Mice  of  local  money-rates  from  the  average  level  of  surrounding 
countries.  On  a  future  occasion  I  shall  endeavor  to  ascertain  how 
far,  in  the  case  of  Great  Britain,  these  (i  priori  conclusions  are 
supported  by  facts,  —  how  far  prices  and  mcomes  have  here,  uiuler 
the  influence  of  the  gold  discoveries,  outstripped  tlie  correspond- 
ing movement  in  other  countries.'  Having  settled  this  point,  we 
shall  be  in  a  position  to  form  a  general  estimate  of  the  benefit 
wdiich  may  thence  accrue  to  us.  Meanwhile,  however,  I  may,  in 
conclusion,  point  out  the  mode  in  wiiich  the  advantages  incident 
to  the  monetary  position  we  shall  occupy  are  likely  to  be  realized. 

And  here  it  may  be  well  to  call  the  reader's  attention  to 
the  distinction,  sometimes  overlooked,  between  a  fall  in  the 
value  of  gold  and  a  rise  in  the  price  of  coimnodities.  A 
rise  in  the  price  of  commodities,  if  general,  implies  commonly 
a  fall  in  the  value  of  money ;  but,  according  to  tlie  ordi- 
nary use  of  language,  alike  by  economists  and  common  speech, 
money  would,  I  apprehend,  in  certain  circumstances,  be  said  to 
have  fallen  in  value,  even  though  the  prices  of  large  classes  of 
commodities  remain  unaft'ected.  For  example,  supposing  im- 
provements to  have  been  eflbcted  in  some  branch  of  production 
resulting  in  a  diminished  cost  of  the  commodity,  the  value  of  money 
remaining  the  same,  prices  would  fall  ;  if  under  such    circum- 

•  [Some  evidence  on  the  point  will  bo  found  in  the  Appendix;  but  the  inquiry  here  con- 
templated was  never  carried  ii;to  c'tVect.  A  very  interestinif  and  carefully  prepared  paper  on 
the  subject,  however,  was  read  ionie  yearw  later  by  my  friend  Professor  Jevons,  before  the 
London  Statistical  Society,  when  I  had  the  satisfaction  to  find  that  the  results  of  his  entirely 
independent  investigatious  to  a  very  large  extent  corroborated  the  conclusions  at  which  I 
had  arrived,  mainly  by  way  of  deduction  from  the  yciK^nil  principles  of  the  science.] 


i! 


TlIK   NEW   GOLD. 


223 


I  to  obtain 
The  ertl'ct 
iicy  rates, 
Iiat  which 
)aiice  like 
1  its  value 
as  analo- 
lore  rapid 
\cr  ascent 
ihich    the 

,  to  expect 
ion  which 
—  a  (liver- 
rrounding 
rtain  how 
isions  are 
're,  under 
rrespond- 
[loint,  ^ve 
ic  benefit 
[  may,  in 
incident 
realized, 
ntion  to 
1    in   the 
ies.       A 
nimonly 
10    ordi- 
speech, 
said  to 
asses  of 
ling  im- 
duction 
money 
tircum- 


liere 


con- 

papcr  on 

licforc  the 

\s  entirely 

wliich  I 

•] 


stances  prices  did  not  fall,  that  could  onlv  be  because  money  had 
not  remained  the  same,  but  had  fallen  in  value.  The  continuance 
of  prices  unaltered  would,  therefore,  under  such  circumstances, 
amount  to  pr(K)f  of  a  fall  in  the  value  of  gold.  Now,  when,  in 
connection  with  this  consitlcration,  wc  take  account  of  the  fact 
that  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  field  of  liritish  industry  im- 
provement is  cons'tantly  taking  place,  it  is  ol)vious  that  the  mere 
movements  of  prices  here,  taken  without  reference  to  the  condi- 
tions of  production,  are  no  sure  criterion  of  changes  in  the  value 
of  gold. 

TliC  truth  is,  in  a  large  class  of  commodities,  —  in  all  those  to 
which  mechanical  or  chemical  inventions  are  extensivelv  appli- 
cable,—  even  on  the  supposition  of  a  very  great  depreciation  of 
gold,  no  consitlerable  advance  in  price  is  prcjbable.  Gold,  for 
example,  might  have  fallen  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  to  the  extent  of  75  P'^*"  cent.,  —  that  is  to  say,  four  sov- 
ereigns now  might  be  ecjual  to  no  more  than  one  sovereign  at  the 
commencement  o{  the  period,  —  and  yet  in  a  large  class  of  manu- 
factured goods  no  advance  in  price  would  be  apparent,  the  reduc- 
tion in  the  cost  of  production  being  in  more  than  an  equal  propor- 
tion. In  ordinary  times,  agricultural  operations  escape  in  a  great 
degree  the  influence  of  industrial  progress  ;  but  witiiin  the  last 
ten  years  —  that  is  to  say,  since  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws, 
which  nearly  synchronized  with  the  gold  discoveries  —  the  spirit 
of  improvement  has  been  as  busy  in  agriculture  as  in  any  other 
department  of  industry,  and,  in  conjunction  with  importations 
from  foreign  countries,  has  acted,  and  must  for  some  time  at  least 
continue  to  act,  powerfully  upon  the  price  of  raw  products  in  this 
country. 

The  depreciation  of  gold,  therefore,  may  be  realized  either  in 
a  corresponding  advance  of  prices,  or  in  the  neutralization  of  a 
fall  which,  in  the  absence  of  depreciation,  would  have  occurred  ; 
but  in  whatever  form  it  may  come  to  us,  our  gain  en"  loss  as  a 
nation  will  be  the  same,  and  will  depend  upon  the  condition  I 
have  stated,  —  the  more  or  less  rapid  depreciation  of  our  currency 
as  compared  with  the  currencies  (convertible,  like  oin^s,  into  gold) 
of  other  countries.  Whether,  the  conditions  of  production  remain- 
ing unaltered,  the  depreciation  be  indicated  by  a  corresponding 
advance  of  prices,  or,  those  conditions  undergoing  improvement, 
the  fall  in  the  value  of  gold  merely  operates  in  neutralizing,  as 
regards  price,  the  eHects  of  the  cheapened  cost  of  commodities,  — 


ill! 


jr 


^ 


(1 

1} 


224 


SELECTIONS. 


in  either  case  ///c  j^'o/d  price  of  the  products  of  RfiQUsh  labor 
atid  abstinence  ivill  rise.  A  «jivcn  exertion  of  ICn^lish  industry 
will  reap  a  \\\\yAix  gold  reward  than  before  ;  and  foreijj^n  coniniodi- 
ties  not  risintj  in  price  in  the  same  dej^rec,  the  larjj^er  <r()ld  reward 
will  indicate,  over  so  much  of  our  expenditure  as  is  directed  to 
foreign  productions.,  a  real  aujj^inentation  of  well-being.  As 
reji^ards  that  portion  of  onr  cxpenditnre  which  falls  npon  the  prod- 
ucts of  our  own  industry,  individuals  and  classes  will,  accordinj^ 
to  circumstances,'  be  benefited  or  injured  by  the  change  ;  but  as 
a  nation,  we  shall  neither  gain  nor  lose,  since  here  the  increased 
cheapness  of  gold  will  be  exactly  neutralized,  either  by  a  corrc- 
spo'if'  ,rr  advance  in  price,  or  by  the  prevention  in  the  same 
tiegrec  of  *a  fall  which  woidd  otherwise  have  taken  place.  It  is 
in  this  way, —  by  the  increased  command  which  she  obtains  over 
foreign  markets  by  her  cheap  gold,  —  and  not,  as  is  commoidy 
suppos'-d,  by  tinding  an  outlet  for  her  wares  in  California  and 
Austi'li-  t,i;,f  England  will  benelit  by  the  gold  discoveries.  That 
outlet  'oi  lic  piu<i:iclions,  —  were  the  movement  to  stop  here,  — 
however  ii  i?  ig'it  benefit  individuals,  would  for  the  country  at 
large  l)e  an  injiti  •'  a'^d  not  a  boon  ;  it  would  deprive  her  of  that 
which  ;'V;:-'-t  "ondi!         0  her   comfort  and  happiness,  and  would 


give 


her  a 


icetl 


.octal"  in  exchansxe.     But  the  move- 


ment does  not  stop  ncre.  'I'lie  money  which  she  obtains  from  the 
gold  countiies,  instead  of  absorbing,  like  India  or  China,  she  em- 
ploys in  purchasing  the  goods  of  other  nations.  It  is  in  the  en- 
larged command  which  she  acquires  over  such  goods  that  her 
gain  consists,  and  it  is  thus  that  she  indemnifies  herself,  though  at 
the  expense  of  the  nations  who  ultimately  retain  the  new  gold,  for 
the  loss —  the  indubitable  loss  —  w  hicli  she  is  called  on  in  the  first 
instance  to  sustain. 


'  On  this  point  sco  Cainios,  p.  147,  et  seq. 


FRANCE   SOUS    I.K   SECOND    E.MI'IKE 


■-3 


XI. 


FRANCE    SOUS   LE   SECOND    EMPIRE. 
From    Lkvasseir's    IIistoire    des    Classes    OuvKifeuKs.      Vol.     ii, 

Credit  kt  Kliianoes. 


? 


s 


it 


Dkihis  (iiiinzc  ans,  trois  fjfiaiul  fails  ccoiiomifjiics  out  excrce 
en  France  line  iiifliiejicc  considerable  sur  la  j^rodnclion  manii- 
tacturiere ;  le  developpenient  du  creilit,  la  niulliplication  des 
chemins  de  fer  et  la  reforme  douaniere. 

II  cntiait  tlans  Ics  viics  du  gouveincment  tie  provotjuer  I'esprit 
d'entrcpii.se.  L'annec  1S52  vit  se  tbrnier  deux  etaMisseinents 
d'une  nature  ties-diverse,  niais  qui  tons  deux  devaient  concourir 
au  menie  but,  celui  de  fournir  des  capitaux  au  travail,  le  Credit 
ioncier  et  le  Credit  niobilier. 

Le  premier,  depuis  longtemps  reclame  par  M.  Wobjwski.  se 
proposait  de  ver.ir  en  aide  a  I'agriculture  en  avan9ant  sur  premiere 
livpotlie(jue  a  la  propriete  fonciere  des  sonmies  reinboursables  ])ar 
annuites  ;  en  realite,  les  prets  agricoles,  cpii  auj^ineiitent  aujounl'- 
liui.  out  ete  les  plus  lents  a  se  developper,  et  la  nature  tie  sa 
clientele  I'a  fait  servir  plus  a  la  construction  vies  maisons  et  aux 
travaux  publics  dans  les  communes  (ju'ii  la  culture  propremcnt 
(lite:  ace  titre,  il  apparticnt  a  I'histtMre  de  I'industrie.  Le  second, 
cree  et  dirij^e  par  M.  E.  Pereire,  est  une  puissante  baiujue  de 
commandite  et  de  speculation,  non  sans  analojjfie  avec  celles  (jue 
reconimendait  le  saint-simonisme.  II  etait  destint}  par  ses  sfatuts 
a  fonder  ou  a  soutenir  tie  grandes  entreprises,  et  il  a,  en  ell'et, 
donn<i  naissance  aux  chemins  de  fer  du  Mitli,  a  la  compagnie  im- 
mobiliere  de  Paris,  au  gaz  de  Marseille,  aux  patjuebots  trans- 
atlantiques  ;  il  devait  etre,  en  raison  memc  de  son  caracterc,  tres- 
vivcmcnt  atfecti:  par  toutes  les  influences  tie  hausse  et  de  b;iissc.  et 
sa  frjrtune  dt:pentlait  entierement  de  I'liabilett"  de  ses  dirccteurs. 

La  Hantpie  de  France,  dont  le  gouvernement  avait  le  tlroit  de 
suspcndrc  le  privilil-ge  en  1S55,  fut  aft'ranchie  de  cette  crainte  et 
autoristl'c  a  faire  des  avances  sur  d^pot  d'actions  et  d'obligations 


'I    I 


Ii! 


I'         ( 


.1.  , 


226 


SKI.KCTIONS. 


I 


cic  cheiiiin  dc  fcr  : '  la  speculation  cti  usa  larpfcmciit.  Qjiclciucs 
aiiticcH  aprt's,  la  IJaiique  obtenait  par  iiiic  loi  la  prorogation  dc 
son  privilc<:jc  jtiscju'eii  1S97,  au  prix  dc  ux)  millions  prctcs  a 
I'Etait  ft  fournis  par  inie  emission  de  nonvelle  actions  ;  la  Hancjue 
pouvait  elcver  le  tanx  de  son  escompte  an-dessns  de  6  pom*  100, 
et  Ic  i^ouvernement  pouvait  cxii^cr,  dix  ans  apres  la  promulti^ation 
de  la  loi,  qu'elle  cut  au  nioins  unc  succursale  par  departcment.^ 

"  Les  operations  de  la  Banque  se  sont  considerablement 
ameliorees,  disait  Ic  j^ouverneur  en  parlant  de  la  situation  en 
1853,  le  commerce  et  I'industric  ont  repres  leur  essor."  En  ettct, 
le  montant  des  operations  s'etait  eleve  d'un  milliard  et  demi, 
chiilVe  dc  1851,  ii  deux  milliards  et  demi.  Lc  produit  des  impots 
indirects  s'etait  notablcmcnt  accru  ;  la  rente  avait  depasse  le  pair  ; 
toutes  les  valcurs  dc  bourse  avaicnt  etc  emportces  dans  le  memc 
mouvcment,  et  les  niarchandises,  sous  la  triple  impulsion  de 
Tabondance  de  Tor,  d'unc  consommation  plus  active  et  d'unc 
speculation  audacieuse,  enclierissaient  chaque  jour. 

Cc  fut  I'agc  d'or  dc  la  l?oursc.  Londres,  (jui  avait  etc  dcpuis 
le  commencement  du  sieclc  le  principal  marclie  ties  capitaux  et 
des  grandes  entrepriscs  en  Europe,  ceda  le  pas  a  Palis.  L'elan 
etait  tel  qu'il  permitau  conmicrcc  de  franchir  le  cholera,  ladisetre, 
la  jifucrrc  d'Orient,  et  a  I'P^tat  d'empruntcr  un  milliard  et  demi 
sans  briscr  le  ressort  du  credit.  Les  capitaux,  a  peine  tbrmes, 
etaicnt  absorbes  ;  les  travaux  publics,  les  emprunts,  la  disette 
elle-meme,  tout  y  contribuait ;  on  speculait  a  la  liausse,  ct  les 
cours  s'elevaient. 

Cependant  les  affaires  etaicnt  devenues  plus  difficilcs  en  1S56: 
le  gouvcrnement  crut  utile  d'enrayer  lui-menie  la  speculation'' et 
dc  faire  unc  loi  restrictive  sur  les  societes  en  commandite  par 
actions. ■•  La  langucur  continua  cependant  en  1857,  et  I'abondance 
dc  la  recoltc  rendait  inevitable  eclata  avec  violence  aux  Etats-Unis. 
EUe  se  communiqua  rapidement  a  Londres,  a  Hambourg,  a 
Paris,  (^u)ique  moins  rudement  eprouvee  que  ses  voisincs,  la 
France  vit,  comme  elles,  les  somxes  du  credit  tarir ;  la  specula- 
tion dut  liquider,  ct  I'luinec  1S58  fut  marquee  par  ime  baisse 
generale  des  niarchandises^  et  par  un  ralentissemcnt  des  trans- 
actions. 


'  D^crct  du  2S  mars  1S52.  2  Loi  du  9  juin  1857. 

3  Voit  au  Mon.,  la  note  du  g  mars  1856. 

*  Loi  du  17  juillct  1856.     11  sVtait  fortnd,  en  1S52,  2t  socidtds  de  ce  genre;  en  1853,  25;  en 
)SS4,  .16;  en  1855.  18;  en  1856,  17.     II  s'en  forma,  en  1S57,  6;   1  ?  en  1S5S,  et  12  en  1859. 
"^  Voir,  sur  cette  crise,  la  Question  Je  I'or,  par  E.  Lcvasscur. 


I'RANCK   SOUS    LK   SIXOM)    LMI'IRK 


22  7 


1  1S56  : 

ion  •'  et 

lite  par 

liulancc 

•Unis. 

irg,  a 
|nes,  la 
>ecula- 

baisse 

trans- 


25;  en 


La  p;ucnc  (I'ltalic  ([ui  siirviiit  raniu'C  suivante,  et  ses  con- 
secjiiences  (iiii  se  lireiit  seiitir  jiis(|ii'eii  iS6i,  enipeclierent  les 
allaires  de  repreiulre  leiir  essor  jusciirau  jour  oii  le  coniI)at  d'As- 
proinonte  lit  croire  a  la  consolidation  dn  tioiie  de  X'ictor-I'^iii- 
mamiel.  Les  coins  se  releveieiil  alors,  et  resprit  d'entrepiise  se 
raninia.  Mais  line  autre  cause  de  malaise  pesait  deja  sur  le 
niarche :  la  <;ueire  d'Anieiiciue  piivait  I'lunope  de  coton  et 
reilusait  a  la  niisere  les  districts  niaiuitacturieis  de  r^\.n<^leterre  et 
de  la  France.  I'ne  crise  inonetaire  s'eusuivit ;  en  1S64,  I'es- 
compte  de  la  r>an(|ue  de  France  inonta  a  8  pour  100,'  et  le 
;4ouvernenient,  sollicite  par  une  petition  de  trois  cents  ne<jjociants 
et  par  unc  contrepetition  de  la  Banciue,  onlonna  une  enciuete  sur 
le  re<j;inie  dii  credit.     Cette  crise  s'apaisait  a  son   tour,   lorscpic 


eclata  la  j^nierie  du  JJaneniark,  puis  la  j^aierre  i 


All 


emairne. 


I 


es 


agitations  de  la  politiipie,  dans  le  vieiix  et  dans  le  nouveau 
inonde,  contrarient  tVeciuenmient,  depuis  dix  ans,  le  deploienient 
pacitupie  des  forces  du  travail  niarchant  a  la  conqiiete  de  la 
niatiere. 

Une  ville  a  particulieremcnt  soullert.  et  soiiilVe  aujourd'luii  plus 
que  les  autres,  de  la   langueur  des  allaires  d<jnt  se  plaint  le  coni- 


ni 


erce.      C'est    Lyon,   dont    la    noaibre 


use 


popi 


hit 


ion    ()u\riere, 


dependant  pres([ue  tout  entiere,  pour  sa  subsistance,  d'une  seule 
industrie  de  luxe,  est  tonjours  la  premiere  a  s'aHaisser  sous    le 


coup 


des  crises  ct  la  derniere  a  se  relever.     EUe  avait  tlevel 


o 


ppe 


ses  relations  exterieures ;  la  guerre  d'Americiue  lui  a  etc  fimeste  ; 
de  84  nuirK)ns  en  1865.-  Le  meilleur  remedc  j^our  elle  serait,  a 
cote  de  son  industrie  de  luxe,  soumise  aiix  caprices  de  la  mode  et 
aux  variations  de  la  fortune,  la  creation  d'une  industrie  commune 
ayant  nn  large  debouclie. 


N 


eanmoms,    m 


ilgre    les    obstacles,    le    travail    a    brillamment 


deploye  ses  forces.'*  La  Baiupie  de  France  dont  les  cscomptes, 
h  Paris,  avaient  une  seule  fois  attcint  1,329  millions,  sous  le  regne 
de  Louis-Philippe,  atteignit  de  nouveau  et  depassa  ce  chinVc  en 
1S56  ;  en  1865,  elle  faisait  3,458  millions.     Elle  etait  alors  devenue 


h 


;t  1 


I  seule  l)anque  (I  emission  et  la  reguiatrice  souverame  du  ere 


latri 


'dit 


en  France  ;    les  operations  de  ses  succursales,  jointes 


au  c 


hill 


re 


des  allaires  de  Paris,  forniaient,  a  la  meme  epocjue,  un  total  de 

'  All  inois  tie  iiiai. 

''  Letfri-  lie  M.  Arlis  Dufour  h  VVpinion  nalionale  ilu  iS  nctohre  iS66. 

2  I.e  progres  des  iinputs  iiidirects,  (lui  a  continue  en  iS<)6,  est,  avec  le  prnprts  du  coin- 
ineice  exterieur,  une  preuvc  i;iie  la  situation,  considdr^e  dans  son  ensemble,  ii'a  pas  cnipir^ 
depuis  une  an,  nialgrd  la  langueur  des  affaires  dans  diverses  industries. 


^ 


[ 


228 


SEI.KCTIONS. 


V     I 


•  ti 


7,.}22  niillif)ns,  tandis  (\i\\-\\  iS^y  Ics  baiuincs  (iL-partcmentalcs  et 
la  IJaiKiiic  (Ic  France  n'attcij^naiciit  (|iio  2.075  millions.  Dans  Ic 
iiic'nic  temps,  sans  (jue  \v  comnuTci'  des  l);m<iUL's  pri\c''t's  parut 
diminucr,'  sc  fondaicnt  d'aiitrcs  grands  L'tablissciiK-nts,  coiniiic  la 
Socit'lc  LTt'iiLTalc  dc  credit  indiistiicl  ct  C(jmmcicial,-'  la  Socictc  dc 
dc'pots  c't  dc  comptcs  coiuants,''  la  Socirtc  ^OniTak-  pour  lavoriscr 
Ic  commerce  et  rindiistrie  en  France.''  L'usa,i,'e  des  checpies, 
iUitrement  dit  riiabitiide  deposer  en  l)an(iue  ses  tbiids  de  cais>e  et 
de  lairc  ses  paiements  en  mandats,  commence,  (juoiciue  trop 
lentement,  a  se  naturaliscr  en  I'rance  et  a  mettle  une  pins  L;ran(.le 
masse  de  capitaux  ii  la  disposition  ihi  credit. 

I'armi  les  entreprises  (|ui  devaient  obtenir  la  favcur,  les 
chcmins  de  fer  etaient  an  picmier  rixw^.  On  avait  soiivent 
reproche  u  la  Fiance  de  s'etre  laisse  devancer  par  ses  voisins,  et 
I'activite  imprimee  aux  constructions  dmant  la  seconde  moitie  dii 
re.Ljnc  de  Louis-Philippe  i)ar  la  loi  de  1S42,  s'etait  amortie  sons  hi 
Repu!)li([nc.  Le  nouvean  goiivcrnenient  la  ranima.'  Les  capi- 
taux etaient  conllants.  On  en  prolita  pour  inaujfurer  un  autre 
mode  de  concession.  A  la  construction  de  hi  voie  par  IMCtat,  on 
substitua  la  construction  par  les  compatjnies  (jue  Ton  eiicourai^ea 
par  line  loiii^ue  jouissance ;  les  banx,  avec  les  nouvelles  com- 
})a<;nies  et  mC'me  avec  les  ancienncs,  fiirent  la  plupart  passes  (ju 
revises  pour  (iuatrc-vin<^t-tlix-neut"  ans."  On  enga<reait  sans  doute 
un  plus  lointain  a\enir ;  mais  on  t'aisait  immediatement  pescr 
toiite  la  chari^e  sur  les  capitaux  appeles  a  recueillir  les  lu'iietices 
les  plus  directs  tie  I'entreprise  ;  la  combinaison  ctait  evidemmcnt 
preferable.     Elle  n'eut  pas  ete  possible  dix  ans  plus  tot. 

Les  concessions  multiples,  creant  des  interets  divers  et  parfois 
hostiles  sur  un  meine  parcours,  etaient  un  obstacle  a  la  circula- 
tion. On  les  leiinit,  de  nianiere  a  former  dc  vastes  compa;^nies 
qui  se  partatiferent  le  domaine  dii  reseau  frain;ais  :  ce  iu>  fut  pas 
sans  quekines  tatonnemcnts  cpii  fournirent  des  amies  a  hi  specu- 
hition."     ]\Liis  dans  I'espace  de  la  premiere  annee,  3,000  kilome- 


'  On  pretend  toutcfois  qu'il  n'iiupfnientc  i)as.  '  7  niai  iSjQ. 

3  6  jiiiiUt  iS'),?.  ■*  4  "liii  1S04. 

'^  Ia' cliL-iiiin  lie  ct'intuic  iiviiit  <fti5  ilecrctd  ilc-s  le  11  lUceinhre  1S51 .  Dans  la  seiilo  annee 
1852,  46  liecrets  furent  rendus  relativenieiit  aux  eheniins  de  fer,  et  267  kiloni.  furent  livres 
k  la  circulation. 

"  Les  euiicussions  etaient  faites  piiur  i.)Ci  ans,  avec  ijarantic,  pour  le  capital  oniras^d  par  les 
Cnnipai-niis,  d'un  niiuiniuni  d'iiiteret  de  4'J  pendant  ia  niiiitie  de  ce  temps.  t^Kli|ues  conces. 
sions  lurenl  nienie  faites  sans  garatie.    Cette  granantie  fut  d'ailleurs  sui>priniee  jiour  le  pre- 
mier rdseau,  lorsque  la  loi  du  11  juin  1859  accorda  une  garantie  particuliere  au  second  reseau. 
<  Decrets  du  17  Janvier,  ig   fevrier,  20,  27  mars  1S52. 


Mtak-s  ct 
Duns  Ic 
cs  pa rut 
:>iunic  la 
tcic'lc-  (Ic 
favoiiscr 
cluHiuc's, 
caissi"  ct 
liic  trop 
s  graiulc 

cur,    lc;s 

SOUVCIlt 

oisins,  et 
noitic'  (hi 
c  sous  hi 
^cs  capi- 
uii  autre 
'Ktat,  on 
couragea 

L'S      COIll- 

)assL's  ()U 

uis  (loutc 

lit    pcscr 

trUL'tlces 

eminent 

]xirfois 

circuhi- 

ipa;^Miie.s 

hit  pas 

li  specu- 

Ikihinie- 


Iculo  ann^e 
Ictil  livies 

fiic  par  Ics 
les  conces- 
l)ur  lu  prc- 
kid  r^scau. 


I  RANci';  sors  i-K  srx'ONi)  kmi'Iri:. 


!29 


tres  trouvaient  (les  eonei'SHionnaires  ;  et,  a  la  Ini  de  la  (|uatiieme 
anni.'e.  sur  une  li>n'j;uer  d'euv  iron  ^.ocx)  kilometres,  hvs  trains  eireu- 
laient. 

Les  ^^randes  artires  Olaieiit  dessiiic'es  el  allaieiit  se  terminer  en 
[)eu  d'annees.  I.c  •j'onxernemeiit  resolut  hardiment  d'ahni'di-r  la 
construction  Av--  li^nes  sc'condairus  et  de  hiire  pcnrlrer  la  \ie  com- 
inerciale  dans  tout  le  corps  dc  la  nati(<ii,  eomnie  hs  ])(.tits  \ais- 
scaux  font  p(^'netrer  le  saii'j;  luscpie  dans  Ics  cliaii  de  I'lionnne. 
Cettc  fois,  le  piolit  ne  semhlait  pas  pouvoir  de  lonntein])s  remu- 
nerer  la  depense  et  d'ailleui's  la  crise  de  1N57  a\ait  rendu  plus 
timidcs  les  entreprises.  Lc  ^oiivernement  interv  int.  et.  par  deux 
lois  succcssiv  es.'  donna  des  subventions  ou  Ljarantit  aiix  cajiitaux 
(hi  second  ivscau,  les([uels  devaient  <!'lre  fournis  |)ar  des  ohli^a- 
tions,  un  intc'-iOt  de  4  pour  100  et  ramortissement  en  cintiuante 
ans. 

C'cst  ainsi  fin'a  la  llii  de  I'aniK'e  1866,  la  longueur  totalc  des 
concessions  (h'liuitives  atteij^nait  21.050  Uilom.,  et  celle  des 
ligncs  exploitC'cs,  14.506;  la  depense  faitc  s'elevait  a  pies  de  7 
milliards. - 

Les  cananx.  (juoicfue  rele;4U(!vs  au  second  plan,  out  ete  termincs 
sur  plusieurs  points,  entrepris  sur  ciuekpies  autres,'  et  sont  len- 
tres,  pour  la  phipart,  dans  le  domainc  de  I'Ltat,'  (jui  s'ust  em- 
pressc-  d'abaisser  prescjne  partout  les  dr(jits  au  iii\eau  des  iVais 
d'entretien.  La  navij^ation  des  rivieres  a  eti;  amelioix-e.'  Les 
grandes  routes,  parallides  aux  voies  de  ter,  se  tronvaient  dc- 
laissees  ;  mais  les  routes  transversales,  cmportant  ou  apportant 
voyageurs  et  marchandises,  cjue  les  trains  recueillent  ou  sement 
sur  leur  route,  s'animaient.''  On  a  en  consecjucncc  redouble 
de  zele  dans  Tapplication  de  la  loi  de  1S36  sur  les  chemins 
vicinaux,"  et  une  loi  nouvclle  a  cncouragd'  les  conseils  <r(!'ne- 
raux  a  construire,  aux  memes    conditions,  des  chemins  de  ter, 


'  Lois  clii  II  juin  I'^5f)  et  (hi  ii  jiiin  1S63. 

-  On  sc  rappclli'  i.\\\'a  la  I'm  ilu  roonc  dc  Louis-I'liilippo,  la  ilciu'iiso  tn'octiiut'  ctail  il't'iivi. 
roil  I  milliaril  j,  et  le  iiniiibre  de  kiltiinetres  exploites  ile  iS,p. 

•^  La  France  ))(issedait  4,.!oo  kiloni.  dccanaux  en  lS.)'>,  et,  en  I'^'i,  .),.ii)ii;  de  plus,  (),ik)o  kil. 
de  rivieres  navii^aMes.  De  jrrands  Iravavix  (inl  etc  poiirsuivis.  Voir  Z.'v/>.  i/e  In  sit.  Je 
VEmp.,  1S67,  Afon.,  p.  450  ct  .(51. 

*  Dccret  du  Janvier  i'v;;j  et  loi  du  2S  juillet  1S60. 
B  Voir,  entre  autres,  la  \o\  du  14  juillet  iSfii. 

«  De  1S4S  a  iSW)  exehisivenient,  I'litat  a  depense  pour  routes,  canaux,  ponts,  pliares,  etc., 
627  millions. 

•  Uelalivenient  aux  chemins  de  fer,  routes,  canaux,  etc.  ^[.  V,  IJoiteau.  Xii'w  Fortune 
puhliqite  ct  finitiirca  de  la  France,  t.  I.  Lccliciniiis  vicinaux  out  coute  en  iSiX),  no  millions, 
d(Uit  un  tiers  en  prestations,  en  nature. 


r^ 


ii' 


ifii  i( 


I 


1 


'I! 


1 1 
Iu1», 


230 


Sr.l.lXJTlONS. 


(|ul,  a  rcscmplc  de  cciix  tic  l\\ls.icc,  lonncront  uii  troisicinc 
rcscjiii.' 

I. a  ti 'i'i,'r:i|)!iio  c'lc'cfii(|UO,  f|iii  rtait  a  si's  di'lmts  imi  1851,  a  cniu- 
iiicMCc  cinclopptT  (Ic  soil  icsL'au  la  France,  a  la  suite  dii  dciTct 
(111  6  Janvier  1S52  ;  elle  convre  aiijounl'lHii  I'l'^mope  ;■'  elle  fait 
coniniiniiipier  les  denx  niondes  et  transniet,  en  France  senleinent, 
pies  de  trois  millions  de  depeclies  pour  le  couiple  des  pailienliers.' 
La  |)()ste,  dont  le  service  a  re^n  a  diverses  reprises  de  notables 
anieliorations,  transportait  trois  Ibis  phisde  lettres  011  d'iniprimes, 
en  1S65  ([ii'en  1S.J7  ;'  de  nonihrenses  conventions  postales  et  des 
conventions  nionelaires  out  ete  sii^nees  a\ec  les  pays  voisins,'' 
Les  regions  lointaines  de  I'Asie  et  de  rAniei"i(|ue  ont  ete  niises  en 
relations  ret^ulieres  avec  nos  ports  par  la  Conipai^nie  des  nies- 
saj^eries  iniperiales,  cpii  s'est  hahilenient  transtbrinee  tlevant  la 
concurrence  des  cheniins  de  f'er,  et  i)ar  la  Conipaj^nie  des  pacpie- 
bots  transatlanticpies  dont,  vinj^t  ans  auparavanl,  nn  uiinistre 
ai'.iait  deja  vonln  ih^ter  la  France." 

Les  lionunes,  leiirs  pensees  et  leurs  produitscirculent  aiijourd'luii 
enbeaucoup  plns<,nande  nonibre,"  avec  plus  de  rapidite  et  a  iiioins 
dc  frais  :  cette  niobilite  (pii  a  sensiblcnient  moditie  I'eco  noniie  de 
la  vie  privee,  et  qui  nioilille  les  rapports  des  nations  lestera,  un  ties 
caracteres  distinctils  ile  la  seconde  nioitie  du  dix  neuvienie  siecle. 

Avec  de  pareilles  conditions,  le  coninierce  exterieur  ne  pouvail 
HKUKiuer  de  s'accroitrc.  I'ln  1S50,  epotpie  a  hKjuelle  il  avait  a 
pen  pres  retrouve  le  niveau  de  I'annee  la  plus  prospere  du  rej^ne 


'  C'l'St  en  iSj9  et  iS()o  que  le  onscil  jjifiidnil  ilu  Has  Hliin,  M.  Mitrncrct,  dtant  prdfet, 
classii  lis  pic'iiiiurs  cluiniii  ile  cc  j^ciire.  —  I.:i  loi  ri'iidiio  sur  la  iiiatiorc  it  du  12  juillit  1S05, 
Deux  ilc-parteiiH'iit.s  (ICure,  Saoiie,  ft  Loire),  iiulepi'iitlainmciit  du  llaut  et  du  llab-Iilun  out 
diij.i  I'litrepris  des  cheniins  de  ce  genre  ^9  autres  departeinenls  ont  decide  en  i)rincii)e  des 
creations  ilu  niOnie  jieiire. 

2  (Jrace  h  la  convention  tdldgraphicpie  du  17  niai  1S05,  "  le  reseau  telegrapliique  du  conti- 
nent europeen  est  aujoiird'lini  dans  toutes  ses  parties  sans  exception,  souniis  a  des  principes 
et  h  des  iiigles  unitornies."     J5^.v/.  lii'  /u  sit.  df  I'Einp.,  1867. 

^  2,3''7,<)';i  depuclies  dans  !es  10  premiers  niois  de  1S66,  ce  qui  suppose  environ  2,480,000 
pour  I'annce.  Au  i't  dec.  i.S6<'),  il  y  avait  2,091  bureaux  telegrapliitiues.  Des  lijines  souter« 
raines  ont  dte  dtablies  dans  quehiues  fjrandes  villes  et  des  (ils  d'uii  dianietre  superieur  sur 
les  priiicipales  lignes  pour  prevenir  les  interruptions  de  service. 

*  Kii  1S47,  216  iiiillions ;  en  1S65,  590  millions. 

"  La  convention  inonetaire  du  23  ddc.  1S65  a  dtahli  une  iiionnaie  uniforme  (i.iais  critiquable 
Ji  certain  egard)  eiitre  la  I'"iance,  la  Heljiique,  la  Suisse,  I'ltalic  et  commence  ^  constituer  ce 
que  M.  de  Parieu  noiniiie  le  Munxverein  latin. 

"  I'lusieurs  autres  services  ont  etd  etablis,  E.xp.  de  la  sit.  de  I'Eiiip,  1867. 

'  Le  noinbre  des  voyajjeur  des  chemins  de  fer  dtait  de  37  millions  en  1S57,  de  S4  millions 
en  1S66.  Uans  cclte  deriiiere  aiinde,  les  84  millions  de  voyajfeurs  ont  fait  ,5,361  millions  de 
kilometres  et  34  millions  de  tonnes  ont  fait  5,171  millions  de  'kH.  Le  produit  brut  a  dtd  de 
184  millions  de  francs  pour  les  voyageurs  etde  314  millions  pour  les  marchandises.  Depuis 
1855,  le  prix  nioycti  kilom^trique  du  transport  de  la  tonne  a  baissd  de  o  fr.  1,117. 


h.\ 


FkANCK   SOL'S    LE   SECOND   EMI'IRK 


231 


oisifinc 


dc  L()iiis-I*liilip|)i'.  ili'tnitdo  2.555  niillions.  I-^ii  iS(').|.  il  s'l'-lovait 
a  7\^-9  iiiillioiis,  c'fst-a-(liiv  ([ii'il  a  prcsijiic  triple  dans  I'cspace 
dc  (|iiiii/c  aiis. 

Si  Toll  pri'iul  la  iiioycMine  dc  cliacuii  dcs  tiois  lustres  ciiii 
coinposcnt  Cftlc  pciiodc,  011  constate,  noii-seulenient  iiii  proj^res, 
inais  line  ])i(>j,Messi()n  constante,  a  n'etivisa^er  ipie  Ics  niarclian- 
discs  iinportees  ou  esportecs  an  commerce  special.  La  nioyiMUie 
dc  1850-1X5.^  est  do  3,291  millions;  cclle  dc  iS55-iS5(),  dc  ,^.6j6 
millions,  ct  cclle  dc  iS6o-iSr).|,  periode  pendant  la(|iiclle  I'ahaisse- 
ment  des  tarifs  lV;ni(,-ais  a  iJiovocpic  la  concnnciicc  ctraii^erc,  dc 
^{'"joi  millions  et  le  pro^frcs  continue.' 

II  a  etc  [)lus  rapide  (|u'aux  <\cu\  epofjucs  preccdentes  dc  notre 
histoirc  contcmjiorainc.  Duiaut  Ics  (piin/c  annecs  dc  la  Res- 
tauration,  notre  c(»mmcrce  exteiicur  avail  a  pen  pies  double  ; 
durant  les  dix-sept  amices  du  regnc  dc  Louis-lMiili|)pc,  il  avait 
fait  uii  pen  pins  (|nc  <loul)lcr.- 

Ce  proj^Mcs  ticnt  a  des  causes  jj^encrales  ct  n'cst  pas  un  privilege 
particnlicr  a  la  France.  Dans  les  etahlisscmcnts  dc  credit  c'est 
cllc  (jui  a  donne  des  excmplcs  a  une  partic  dc  I'Europc,  mais  die 
n'a  fait  (pie  siiivrc  a  distance  rAnj^lctcrre  dans  la  construction 
des  clicmins  dc  tcr,  cllc  avait  etc  devancee  par  plusieuas  Etats. 
Cependant  aucunc  nation,  la  HclL,n(iue  cxceptcc,''  n'a,  dcpuis 
(luin/.e  ans,  plus  lar^a'incnt  (pic  la  I'rancc,  etendu  scs  relations 
extt!;ricures.  IVndant  (ju'cUe  en  triphiit  Ic  chillVc,  la  pluparl  des 
pays  commcr^ants,  ct  rAn<:;lctcrrc  en  particnlicr,  doublaient 
sciilcmcnt  Ic  Icur  ;  il  est  juste  dc  notcr  toutelois  (pic  ce  double- 
nicnt,  en  An_t;lctfMic,  portait  son  cliillrc  a  11  milliards.'' 


•  Ces  chiffres,  il  est  vrai,  sontccux  des  valcurs  actiiellfs,c'est-h-cliri'  ilfs  prix  dii  miircli«!, 
et,  coiiinie  hi  vali'iir  dc  {'ardent  :i  (liiniiiu^,  ils  ne  rcpr^suiitciit  pas  uiic  (piaiititd  triple  dc 
niarcliandiscs.  K'annee  iSCi;,  dmit  on  ne  connait  encore  (pic  Ic  coitiinerce  special,  a  produit 
S,9Si  niillioiis,  I'annde  1S66  prodiiira  environ  b,\('x}  millions  (a  produit  v.^oS  millions  pour 
Ics  10  premiers  moi^)  ;  le  commerce  special  dc  iS<'>4  etaitde  5,  (52  mil  lions.  I. a  ii.i\  illation  s'est 
accrue  comnie  le  reste ;  12,551,504  tonnes  en  1S5.);  i7,0iS,i)<K)  tonnes  en  iS*/).  I,a  principalc 
augmentation  a  etc  pour  les  ports  de  M.irseille,  du  Havre  et  do  Hordeux. 

2  Kti  1S15  (trcs-inauvaise  unnee  d'aileurs),  6ii  millions,  cii  1S.50,  i.Jii  millions;  en 
1S47,  2,4.?"  millions. 

'  Hclgiquc,  en  1S55,  ,^5S  millions  de  francs,  ct,  on  1S.47,  5S);  en  1S50,  61S  millions  et,  en 
1864,  2,4.5^  millions;  ce  cpii  fait  environ  5™)  t"r.  per  habitant.  Kn  I-'rance,  la  proportion  n'est 
pas  tout  h  fait  de  200  fr.  par  habitant,     lille  est  en  Anyleterre  de  },(M>  t'v. 

*  En  1S54  (premiire  anne  oil  la  statistiqueait  donne  ^^'^  valenrs),  2'>S  millions  de  livres 
sterliuff,  et,  en  iS(')4,  4,55  millions,  (soit  environ  10  milliards,  i/)o  millions).  ICn  iSjo,  unc 
statistique  anglaise  (z»o/>  les  AiiiKiii's  du  commerce  exii'rieiir)  donnait  no  millions:  il  y 
aurait  done  cu  i  peu  pris  doublement  de  18,50  i  1S50.  Pays-Bas,  en  18.5^,471  millions  dc 
francs;  en  1850,  1,079;  en  1S64,  1,904.  Hussie,  en  1S50,  192  millions  dc  roubles;  en  1863, 
306  millions.  fCtatsUnis,  en  1S31,  environ  1S4  luiilions  dc  dollars;  en  1S51,  41^  millions; 
en  1S60,  763  millions. 


-  '   ;•*; 


SI 


;tr' 


232 


sr.I.KCTloNS. 


II  rc'stc  :i  dire  (|uc'lk-s  lois  out  tavorisc  ccttc  extension  iln  com- 
meicc  et  regi.ssent  aiijounriuii  le  travail. 

I-KS   Tk.MI(*S    tlE   COMMEHCE. 

(>jiiel(|iies  joins  apres  la  proclamation  de  rFanpirc,  Ic  s6natns- 
consnlte  chi  2^  deceinbre  1S52  intc'ii)ivtait  et  etendait  les  prero<j;a- 
tives  (In  sonverain  en  niatiereile  Iraites  de  coniineiee,  en  declarent 
(pTils  anraient  "■  force  de  loi  ponr  les  niodilications  de  taiif  qui  y 
sont  stipidees."  e'est-a-dire  (|ne  le  Corps  lenislatifn'aurail  plus  le 
droit  de  les  ratilier  on  de  les  annnler  par  son  vote.  Ce  ponvoir. 
reniis  an  diet"  de  I'lCtat.  ponvait,  en  dehors  dts  considerations 
politi(|Ues,  iiKpiieter  certains  interets  ;  le  president  dii  Senat,  dans 
son  rapport.  s'ap])lit|ua  a  les  rasstner  en  se  prononcj-anl  contre  les 
theories  de  la  lil)eite  coniinerciale 

Cependant  la  recolte  de  1^53  tut  niamaise.  I. 'importation 
seule  pou^ait  comhler  le  delicit.  Le  ^oiiveinement,  pour  I'en- 
courafjer,  ii'liesita  pixs  a  ahaisser  toutes  les  harrieresde  la  douane  ; 
il  decreta  la  suspension  de  I'echelle  mobile,'  Fexemption  dii  droit 
do  tonnaj^e  et  de  la  surtaxe  ile  pavilion  pour  les  navires  charj^es 
de  substances  alinientaires.^  rabaissement  du  droit  snr  les  bes- 
tiaux.''  Ce  n'et.iient  epic  des  mesures  temporaires ;  mais  dies 
scmblaient  indi(iiier  un  esprit  nouveau. 

Dans  les  deux  camps  opj)oses  on  s'emut  M.  Jean  Dollfns  cntre- 
prit  une  carnpajj^ne  contre  la  prohibition  des  tils  de  coton.  Le 
debut  fut  porte  successivement  devant  la  Societe  imlustridle  de 
Mulhouse,  devant  le  Consi'il  snpi^'rieur  du  commerce  et  dans  le 
cabinetde  rEmperenr  :  ^L  Dolll'us  attacpia,  ALTJ.  l'\Mav  d'Essonne 
et  Scilliere  detenilirent  le  systemc  piotecteur.  Le  tarif  des  cotons 
ne  subit  ipi'une  moditicatioii  lejjere  ;■*  mais  tleja  nn  decret,  plus 
si<jnitlcatil'.  chanjTcait  les  /ones  d'entree  pour  la  liouille  et  dimin- 
uait.de  moitie  environ,  le  droit  sur  les  fers.'  Deux  ans  apres, 
nouvdle  reduction,  et,  cominc  conse(juence.  abaissement  du  droit 
snr  le  ter-blanc,  le  til  tie  fer,  la  vieille  terraille  et  les  machines." 
L'annee  1S55    etait  marquee,  on  outre,  par  le  retranchement  de 

'  n^crct  du  iS  iiiiut  1*^5,1.  Cetto  r^fornie  dtait  ;ili>rs  (iomnnclt'i'  par  lo  i-dpsim!  municipal  df 
Marseille  I't  par  lo  I'oiisoil  f;eii(iral  do  I'llc-rault  qui'  prt'sidait  M.  Mielu.!  Chevalier. 

=  nee.  du  S  aiiiil  iS5;. 

^  Dec.  du  14  septeuibre  1S53.  —  Les  droits  sur  ba-ufs  et  taurcaux  (ftaieiit  reduits  de  50  fr. 
i  i  fr. 

*  X'oir  le  ddcret  du  2S  dc'ccmlire  185  v 

"  Dec.  du  21  iiovembre  iSjj.  —  La  diminuitior.  sur  I'acicr  fondu  ^taitinSmu  beaucoup  plus 
forte :  de  i\i  fr.  a  \  fr. 

"  Udc.  du  7  septeuibre  1S55. 


FRANCE   SOUS    LH   SECOND   EMIMRK. 


233 


v.: 


cntre- 
Le 
■He  dc 
a  lis  le 

vssomic 
cotons 

•t,  plus 

(liiiiiii- 

apivs, 

11  droit 

IllllfS." 
K'llt   (Ic 

nii'ipul  lie 


pres  (Ic  ZCK)  articles  sans  iinportaiice,  tels  (|iic  les  yciix  (rccrcvissc 
oil  le  ^iii  (ic  ciiciic,  <|iii  alloii^eaieut  le  taiif  sans  profit  pour  le 
Ticsor,'  et  par  une  diuiimitioii  iin[)orlaMte  du  droit  sur  K-s  iaincs 
et  les  pcaux  brutes.-  La  tendance  du  }^ou\ciiu.'Uient  s'accusait 
avec  plus  de  nettete. 

L'lCxposition  uuiveiselle  de  I'aris  venait  d'avoir  lieu  et  I'in- 
dustrie  tVaiKjaise  v  avait  brille  au  premier  ran^  parnii  les  nations. 
Dans  le  hut  (rei)ar<;ner  aux  c\[K)saiits  elrann'crs  la  la  couteuse 
necessite  de  reniportcr  leurs  produits,  et  ]>eiit-etre  aussi  tie  tenter 
i\nc  experience,  le  prince  Xapok'-on,  president  de  !a  Coniiiiissiou, 
avait  fait  decider  cjue  tons  ies  ohjets  exposes,  (ju'ils  tiissent  pro- 
Iiihes  ou  non,  pourraient  etre  vendus  et  admis  exceptioiuieileinent 
en  France  en  pa\aiit  un  droit  de  22  p.  KXi.'  Or,  sur  un  total 
d'en\iron  22  millions  de  ricliesses  etrau'Ljeres,  (jui  avaii'iil  ete, 
pendant  })lusieurs  mcjis,  etalees  sous  les  yeiix  d'un  |)iil)lic  si  nom- 
breux,  2  millions  ^j  seulement  avaient  trouve  des  acheteurs 
fran(;ais.'  L'industrie  frani^aise  n'etait  done  pas  aussi  incapable 
de  hitter  contre  la  concurrence  tlu  dehors  que  le  [)roclamaient 
les  parties  interessees. 

"  L'oliscrvalion  tpii  m'a  frappe  tout  d'abord,  disait  le  prince 
Napoleon  dans  son  rap[)ort,  c'est  (pie  de  ces  j^nmds  concours 
jaillit  une  fois  de  plus  la  ))reu\e  (|ue  les  soci(!'tes  modernes 
niarchent  vers  la  lil)erttj";  dCjh  le  j^ouvernement,  desireux  de 
di!'velopper  *'  les  relations  internationales  (pii  preparent  le  pro'^res 
de  la  ci\ilisation,"  a\ait  pivsente  au  Corps  It'j^islatif  ''  un  projet 
levant  toutes  les  prolul)itions."  Pour  la  premiere  tois  peut-etre, 
il  avait  rencontre  une  resistance  cpii  I'avait  d'autant  plus  ctonne 
qu'elle  vUut  phis  rare  et  qu'elle  chercl.ait  a  prendre  son  point 
d'appui,  hors  dc  lassembl(J-e,  dans  I'aj^itation  des  villes  manu- 
facturit'-res  II  retira  le  projet,  en  annongant  (jn'mic  nouvelle  loi 
etait  mise  a  IV'tude,  et  ([ue  la  levi}e  des  prohibitions  n'aurait  lieu 
qu'a  partir  du  I'^  jtiillet  1861 .  "L'industrie  fran9aise,  pivvenue 
des  intentions  bien  arretees  du  <rou\ernement,  ajoutait  le 
Mouitcur,  aura  tout  le  temps  necessaire  pour  se  preparer  a  un 
nouveau   rejjjime  commercial.' 

Durant  trois  ans,  le  silence  se  fit  sur  cette  tjrave  question.''  D'ail- 
leurs  vers  la  fin  de   1S57,   une  crise  terrible  avait  desai^onne  la 


1  Pc'c.  ihi  i6juillit  1S5S. 

»  Pc'c.  (Ill  6  avril  1S54. 

»  Afonitmr  ilu  17  octob.'C  iSjfi,'^ 

•  Cepeiiiliint  plusicurs  decrcts  importants  furcnt  rciidus 


'  Ddc.  (hi  17  Janvier  et  du  10  (idciiiibtr  1S5;. 
*  Voir  yoiirn.  Jes  £con.,  2f  scric,  t.  xi,  \i.  .471 , 


771 

Ik'  i 


:ft 


w 


234 


SELECTIONS. 


w 


ilii 


m 


%■■: ' 


^ 


\ 


t 


Hi 


speculation  et  fait  momcntaiK'nicnt  refluer  en  baisse  Ic  prix,  sans 
ccsse  nioiitant  depuis  1S52,  des  demecs,  des  niatiercs  picinicres, 
et,  par  suite,  des  ol)jets  manufactures;  la  reprise  des  travaux 
avait  etc  suspcndue,  en   1S59  P'"'  ^''  gi'i^i'ic  d'ltalie. 

Le  commerce  commen9ait  a  peine  a  retrouver  son  equilihre, 
lorscjue,  le  15  Janvier  1S60,  Ic  Mouiteiir  publia  la  lettre  (pie 
I'Empereur  avait,  quekpies  jours  auparavant,  d'crite  ii  son  ministre 
des  finances.^  C'etait  un  vaste  progranmie  economicjue  dont  le 
but  etait  "d'imprimer  wn  grand  essor  aux  diverses  branches  de  la 
richesse  nationale,"  et  cpie  son  auteur  resumait  en  ces  termes. 

"  Suppression  des  dn^its  sur  la  laine  et  lescotons; 

"  Reduction  successive  sur  les  sucres  et  les  cafes ; 

"  Amelioration  energiquement  poursuivie  des  voies  dc  com- 
munication. 

"  Reduction  des  dioits  sur  les  canaux,  et,  par  suite,  abaisse- 
ment  general  des  frais  de  transport ; 

"  Prets  a  I'agriculture  et  a  I'industrie  ; 

"  Suppression  des  prohibitions  ; 

"  Traite  de  commerce  avcc  les  puissances  etrangeres." 

"  Par  ces  mesures,  ajoutait  I'Empereur,  I'agriculture  trouvera 
I't^coulement  de  ses  produits ;  I'industrie,  allranchie  d'entraves 
exterieures,  aidec  par  le  gouvernement,  stimulee  par  la  con- 
currence, luttera  avantageusement  avec  les  produits  ctraiigerb  et 
notre  commerce,  an  lieu  languir,  prendra  im  nouvel  essor." 

La  pensce  du  gouvernement,  sur  ce  point,  se  relcvait  tout 
entiere.  II  etait  impossible  qu'issu  du  suHVage  universel  et 
degage  des  liens  qui  avaient  arrets  ses  predecesseurs,  il  consentit 
a  maintenir  dans  son  integrite  le  systeme  prohibitif  que  les  gou- 
vernements  precedents  eux-memes  n'avaient  cree  ou  conserve 
aussi  rigoureux  que  par  la  necessite  de  compter  avec  de  puissantes 
influences;  mais  il  eut  pu  se  faire  (lu'un  autre  souverain  embrassAt 
moins  resolument  un  moins  vaste  ensemble.  Qiioi  (ju'il  en  soit, 
depuis  le  decret  de  Berlin,  aucun  fait  aussi  consiil^rable  ne  s'etait 
produit  dans  I'histoirc  de  notre  legislation  tlouaniere. 

Deja  etaient  arretes  les  articles  du  plus  important  traite  de 
commerce  que  put  signer  la  France,  de  celui  qui  tlevait  la  Her  a 
sa  rivale  la  plus  redoutee.  Le  heros  de  la  ligue  anglaise,  Richard 
Cobden  ct  M.  Michel  Chevalier,  qui,  depuis  1S52,  faisait  a  chaque 
session  du   Conseil   general  de  I'llerault,  voter  \\n  manifeste  en 

'  Lcttte  du  s  Janvier  i860. 


m. 


FRANCE  SOUS  LE  SECOND  EMPIRE. 


235 


faveiir  dc  la  libcrte  commcrciale,  en  avaicnt  cu  Ics  premiers  la 
pensec,  ct  avaieiit  trouve  dcs  dispositions  favorablcs  dans  le 
ministcre  anglais  et  a  la  cour  dcs  Tuilerics.  An  Icndeniain  dc  la 
paix  dc  VillatVanca  et  a  la  vcillc  ^\u  traitc  de  Tnrin,  I'lCnipercnr, 
dcsirenx  dc  serrcr  Ics  nanids  pacitlqncs  dc  la  France  ct  dc  I'Anijjlc- 
tcrre,  approuva  ini  projet  qui  rcpondait  aux  bcsoins  de  sa  politi(iuc 
exterieure  conime  a  ses  vues  dc  rcformes  econoiniqucs,  ct  dcs  la 
fin  de  novcnibre  1859,  les  ncj^ociations  prcliniinaircs,  conduites 
avec  le  plus  grand  secret  parM.  Roubcr,  niinistrc  tin  coninicrce, 
et  par  Ics  deux  economistes,  ctaient  tcrniinccs.  Cc  t\it  par  la 
Icttre  du  5  Janvier  que  la  France  apprit  {[u'cllc  entrait  dans  nnc 
nouvclle   crc   industrielle.     Le  23  du   nicnie  niois,  le  traitc  etait 


sijinc. 


Les  probibitions  (!'taicnt  snpprimccs.  Les  niarcbandises 
anglaises  entrcraient  en  France  en  payant  un  droit  ad  valorcfn^ 
qui  scrait  bicntot  converti  en  droit  spccificiue,  et  qui  n'cxccdcrait 
pas  30  pour  100  an  debut,  25  pour  100  a  partir  de  I'annce  1S64. 
La  Grandc-Bretagne,  de  son  cote,  admcttait  en  pleine  franchise 
nos  prodnits,  qui  payaient  encore  pour  la  plupart  un  droit  dc  10 
pour  100,  ct  ne  prelcvait  plus  qu'une  taxc  variable  de  i  a  2 
sclicllings  sur  nos  vins,  et  de  S  schcllings  5  pence  sur  nos 
eanx-dc-vic.  ^ 

Le  traitc  du  23  Janvier  etait  un  tvpe  sur  Icqucl  on  sc  proposait 
dc  reformer  toute  notre  legislation  ilouanierc,  ct  de  rcgler  les 
rapports  commcrciaux  de  la  P^rance  avec  ses  voisins.  Dcs  ncgo- 
ciations  furent  prcsque  aussitot  entaniccs ;  cllcs  ont  amcne  la 
conclusion  tie  plusieurs  traites.  d'abord  avec  la  liclgiciuc,"  puis 
avec  la  Prusse  ct  le  ZoUvcrein,'^  puis  avec  I'ltalie  et  la  Suisse,* 
enfin,  en  1S65  ct  1S66  avec  les  Pays-Bas,  les  villcs  banseatiqucs, 
le  Mccklcinbourg,  la  Suede,  I'Espagnc,  le  Portugal,  Ic  Pcrou, 
rAutrichc/ 

Le  Corps  Idgislatif  ne  fut  saisi  de  ccs  rcformes  qu'apr^s  le  fait 
accompli."  Cet  usage  dcs  droits  confcrcs  au  souverain  par  le 
senalMS-consulte  du  25-30  decembrc  1S52,  eut  le  regrettable  efVet 


'  I.e  trait(5  portait  S  sell.  2  poiu'i';  niais  Ic  taiix  fiit  trouvd  iiisuflisaiit  eii  Annlfterre  cl 
porti5  a  S  sili.  5  p.  jiar  iiii  art.  addil.  du  20  (evriir. 

*  10  iiiai  iS<ii.  ■■'  24  mars  ct  2  aout  iS^)2,  10  niai  1S65. 

*  17  janvitT  iS(i.(,  et  ,50  jiiin  iSTvj. 

"-jilin  iSh;,  II  mars  iSrtj,  g  jiiin  iJVii;,  4  ct  ,50  juin,  iS  juiii  iS<)5,  11  juillct  iSo*);  2  ddc,  11 
ddc.  iS<S6.  \'oir  M.  Uoitcati,  Les  Traitt's  Je  commerce  ct  £x/ioseJi'  /a  si'l.  Je  /'Empire. 
{Afoii.  dc  janv.  iS<V)  ct  dc  f^v.  18^)7.) 

"  Ln  discussion  sur  Ics  modifications  detarifdu  traits  du  2.^  Janvier  re  comiiictii^a  uu  Corps 
l^gislutif  que  Ic  2S  avril. 


iiLff'< 


if  ^ 

li  ^ 

'':          ■ 

! 

■- ' 

r 

i 

!•' 


1^1  lb'"' 


2\G 


SKLKCTIONS. 


tic  (loiiiicr  a  line  traiistbrmation  libciale  rappareticc  (riiiu>  coup 
d'lCtait  coiiinicrcial,  ct  prcta  aux  jxirtisansdc  la  protection  leurjihis 
solide  aiLCUinent.  Le  j^oiiveinenient  tint  hon.  Dans  les  discus- 
sions successi\es  c|u'onl  anienecs  les  traites,  il  s'est  app]i(|ue  cons- 
taninient  a  etahlir  des  droits  de  plus  en  plus  modcres,  atln  de  rcudre 
toujours  ])lus  taciles  les  relations  internationales,'  ct  (pioiiiue  la 
polili(pie  ait  lendu  vaine  dnraut  plusieurs  annces  la  Convention 
avec  le  Zollverein,  la  France  coniniuniciue  aujourd'luii  avec 
toutes  les  nations  liniitrophes  de  son  tcrritoire,  sans  rencontrer 
rol)stacle  insnrniountal)le  de  la  prohibition,  et  sans  avoir,  dans  la 
majorite  des  cas,  a  payer  autre  chose  tpi'un  simple  droit  de  con- 
soniiuation.  asse/  leijer  en  fait,  et  letj^itinic  en  principe. 

Ces  traites  avaientt'ait  disparahre  les  prohil)itions.  Le  systenie 
protectein"  ciu'elles  etayaient,  et  dans  lecpiel  de  si  lar<j[es  breches 
etaient  ouvertes,  devait  necessairenient  croulcr.  II  ne  restait  au 
Corps  k\nislatif  qu'a  deblayer  le  terrain  et  a  retablir  rhannonie 
dans  les  diverses  parties  de  notre  Code  douanier,  en  votant  les 
projets  (pie  lui  prescntait  le  gouvernenient. 


•  Aiii'^i,  parexi'inplc,  los  iiiinlei;ilii)ns  du  clrnits  pi>rtdcs  dans  lo  traitii  avec  I'llalic,  out  ute, 
par  (k'crit  ilu  ^o  jaiuicr  18*14,  a|)|)liiiiicL'b  a  la  IJclgiiino  ct  i  I'AnglOtcrrc. 


TI 1 E    FRI:NC  1 1    L\  DKM  N  IT  V, 


^o7 


Xli, 


THE    FRHNCII    INDEMMTV. 


T///:  PAYMrxr  of  the  five  milliards. 


'  systcinc 
i  bivchcs 
c'stait  ail 
lannoiiie 
utaut  les 


% 


Black\v()Oi)"s  Ki)iNiuK(iii  Macazini:,  Fkii.,  1S75,  im*.  17J-1S7. 

As  soon  as  it  became  known,  (uc  years  ayo,  that  I'laiice  liad 
to  liand  over  £200,000,000  to  Germany,  it  was  t,reneially  predicted 
that  the  tinancial  e(|nihhrinm  of  Europe  wouhl  he  upset  hv  the 
tranfer  of  so  vast  a  sum  from  one  country  to  another,  and  tliat  the 
whole  system  of  international  monetary  relationship  would  be 
thrown  into  confirsion.  jVpprehensions  of  an  analo<^ous  nature 
were  abundantly  expressed  w  hen  the  two  French  loans  succes- 
sively came  out.  Wise  bankers  slujok  their  heads  in  Frankfort, 
Lonilon,  Amsterdam,  and  Hrussels,  and  assured  their  listeners 
tliat,  thouLfh  the  money  would  probably  be  subscribed,  it  could 
not  possibly  be  paid  up  under  five  years  at  least.  And  yet  the 
v.'holt"  of  liiis  vast  transaction  was  carried  out  between  ist  Jtmc, 
1S71,  and  5th  September,  1S73;  twenty-seven  months  suiliced 
for  its  completion  ;  and  not  one  sin<^le  serious  dflicultv  or  disorder 
was  produced  by  it.  The  fact  was  that  the  commercial  world 
had  no  idea  of  its  own  ])c)wer  ;  it  thou<j;ht  itself  much  smaller  than 
it  reallv  is  ;  it  failed  alto<ifethcr  to  suspect  that  its  own  current 
operations  were  already  so  enormous  tliat  even  the  remittance  of 
five  milliards  from  France  to  (iermany  could  be  jrrafted  on  to 
them  witiiout  entailin*^  any  material  perturbation.  Such,  how- 
ever, has  turned  t)ut  to  be  the  case  ;  and  of  all  the  lessons  furnished 
by  the  war,  no  otiier  is  more  practical  or  more  strange.  The 
story  ot  it  is  told,  in  detail,  in  a  special  report  which  has  recently 
been  addressed  by  M.  Leon  Say  to  the  Commission  of  the  l?udi,a't 
in  the  French  Chamber.  It  is  so  curio',  s  and  instructive  that  it 
is  well  worth  w  bile  to  analyze  it.  It  may,  how  e\  er,  be  mentioned, 
that  the  oriler  of  exposition  adopted  by  M.  Say  is  not  followed 
here.  To  render  the  tale  clear  to  Enlish  readers,  the  tbrm  of  it  is 
chanfjed. 

But  before  explainin<j^  the  processes  by  which  the  war  indem- 
nity was  paid,  it  will  be  useful  to  recall  the  principal  features    of 


m^ 


ill:    ; 


1 


238 


SELFXTIOXS. 


the  position  in  which  France  was  phiced  by  her  defeat.  It  is  now 
computed  that  the  entire  cost  of  the  campaign  amounted,  directly 
and  intUrectly,  to  about  £416,000,000;  and  this  outhiy  ma}-  be 
divided  into  five  sections,  —  the  th"st  three  of  which  were  ilechired 
oflicially  by  the  Minister  of  Finance  in  his  report  of  2Sth  October, 
1873,  while  the  two  others  have  been  arrived  at  by  a  conipaiison 
of  various  private  calculations.  They  are  composed  as  follows  :  — 

I .  Su»is  paid  by  I^rancc  for  her  ozvn  military  operations  — 
War  expenses  to  the  end  of  1872  .  .  JL'76,-)8o,ooo 
Food  bou<(ht  for  Paris  before  the  siege  .  6.781,000 
Assistance  to  families  of  soldiers,  etc.  .       3,000,000 

Balance  of  war  expenses  payable  out  of  the 

Liquidation  Account       ....       21,542,000 


Total  of  French  expenses  proper,      JC 107, 203,000 

Sums  paid  to  Germany  — 

Indemnity        ......  £200.000,000 

Interest  on  unpaid  instalments  of  indemnity  1 2,065,000 
Maintenance  of  German  army  of  occupation  9,945,000 
Taxes  levied  by  the  Germans  .         .         .         2,  468.000 


Total  paid  to  Germany  . 


.  .t*224.478,ooo 


3.    Collateral  expenses  — 

Cost  of  issue  of  the  various  war  loans,  re- 
bates of  interest,  exchange,  and  cost  of 
remitting  the  indemnity         .         .         .    £25,247,000 

Loss  or  diminution  of  taxes  and  revenue  in 

consequence  of  the  war         .  .         .         14,567,000 


Total  of  collateral  expenses 


.     £39,814,000 


4.  Requisitions  in  cash  or  objects  — 

Supplied  bv  towns  or  individuals,  includ- 
ing the  £8,000,000  paid  by  Paris  — 
estimated  at  .         .         .         .         . 


£15,000,000 


5.  Loss  of  profits  consequent  upon  the  suspension  of  trade  — 
Estimated  at    .....  .     £30,000,000 


\M. 


IHK    IKKNCII    INDKMMIV. 


^39 


Rksimk 


I. 

2. 

?>■ 

4- 


General  Total 


I5.fXXJ.(XX) 
30.fXX).0CK> 

t"  1 16.  {(j^.fxx) 


Now,  what  has  Fiance  to  show  against  tliisr 

Ik-ranmial  ;^fains  heforc  the  war  were  put  hv  M.  Maurice  Block 
(•'  Europe.  I'oliliciue  et  vSociale,"  p.  317)  at  t'ycx^.fxxj.rxx) :  uiifor- 
tunatelv  he  does  not  tell    us    how   much    of  this    she    spends,  and 
how  much  slie  la\s  1)\  ;    hut    tl'.ere   is  a    prevalent    impression    in 
France  that  iieramiual  sa\  ings  amount  to  t'So.cxxj.fxxj.     We  sliall 
mention  preNcntly  a  calculation  which  seems  to  indicate  that,  duriiij^ 
the  later  perioil  of  the   liimpire,  they  mu-t   ha\e   amounted  to   a 
considerably   larger   sum   tiian    this  ;  hut  if  we  admit   it,  for  the 
moment,  as  correct,  it  would  follow  that  the  cost  of  the   war,  in 
capital,  represented  live  years'  aecimiulalioii  of  the  nut   profits  of 
the  country.     It  is  not,  however,  in  tiuit   form   that   a    proportion 
can  I)e  established  between  liabilities  and  ri'scnuces  ;  the  measure- 
ment must  be  made,  not   in   ca])ital,  but   in   interest,  for    it    is,  of 
course,  in  the  latter  form  alone  —  that  is  to  say,  in  new    taxation 
to  pav  interest  on   Icxms  —  that  l'" ranee   now   feels   the   pressure. 
That  new  taxation,  when  com[)leted  (it  is  not  all  voted   \et),  will 
amount  to  about    £' 26,000.000  a  year  ;   and   that    is  the   re:d   sum 
which   is  to  be  deducted  from  the  annual  profits  of  the  country 
in  conse([uence    of    tiie  war.       Now,   if  those  profits  were  onlv 
£80,000.000,  and  if  they  arc   not   proi^ressin<!f,  but   standing  still 
at  their  previous  rate,  this  deduction  would  absorb  almost  a  third 
of  them,  but  as  they  are  continual!}  advancing — as  every  branch  of 
trade  in  France  is  active — as  foreign  commerce,  which  isgenerallv 
acceptetl  as  a  safe  test  of  national  prosperity,  was  one-fifth  larger  in 
1S73  than  in  1S69  — it  may  fairly  be  supposed  that,  after  paying  the 
£26,000,000  of  war  taxes,  France  is  etlectively  laying  bv  as  much 
as  she  did  in  the  best  years  before  the  war,  whatever  tliat  reallv  was. 
After  this  rough  indication  of  the  situation,  we  shall  better  un- 
tlerstand  the  story  of  the  five  milliards.      It  is  scarcely  possible  to 
disassociate   it  from  the  general  attendant  circun'.stanccs    of  the 
position  as  a  whole ;  the  two  should  be  kept  in  view  together. 


1   ■ 


240 


SEI.KCTIONS. 


•  h 


It 


""J'hc  p;iyiiicnt  of  the  indemnity,  and  the  (k't.-iilcd  conditions 
under  wliicli  tiiat  |)a\  nunt  was  to  he  made,  were  stipulated  in  the 
three  treaties  or  con\entions  sij^ned  suecessively  at  Versailles, 
Ferrieres,  and  Frankfort,  in  January,  ^hirch.  and  May,  1871.  It 
was  determined  hy  tlie  last-named  treaty  that  •'  payments  can  he 
made  only  in  the  principal  comiuercial  towns  of  (lermany,  and 
shall  l)e  elll'cled  in  <;<)ld  or  siher,  in  ICu'^lish.  I'ltissinn.  Dutch,  or 
13el^ian  hanU-noles,  or  in  commercial  hills  of  the  lirst  class," 
Tlie  rates  of  exchanj^e  on  coin  were  ll\e<l  at  ^f.  "j-^c.  per  thaler, 
or  at  2t".  i^c.  ])er  I'^rankkort  florin;  and  it  was  aL,Mee(l  that  the  in- 
stalments should  he  paid  as  follows:  — 


30    days    after    the    suppression    of    the 
Commune  .  .  .  .  . 

DurinL,^  1S71  ...... 

1st  May,  1S73  .  .  .  .  . 

2d  March,  187.} 

Total  ...... 


,£'20.000,000 

.|O.OCX).000 

20,000.000 
I  20.000.000 


£200.0CXJ,000 


i|:l!: 


The  last  €120,000,000  were  to  hear  interest  at  ^  per  cent. 

It  must  he  particularly  ohserved  that  no  currency  was  to  l)e 
"  liherative"  exceptintif  coin,  German  thalers  dv  (Jenuan  florins. 
'J'he  other  forms  of  money  which  the  German  Government  con- 
sented to  accept,  did  not  constitute  a  definite  payment ;  it  was 
not  until  those  other  forms  were  converted  into  their  ecpiivalent 
value  in  thalers  or  in  florins  that  the  payment  hecame  '"  libera- 
tivc."     This  was  the  essential  basis  of  the  l)ar<j;ain. 

Furthermore,  it  was  declared  that  the  instalments  must  he  paid 
at  the  precise  dates  fixed,  neither  before  nor  afterwards;  and  that 
no  payments  on  account  should  be  allowed.  It  was  not  till  July, 
1S72,  that  leave  was  j^iven  to  make  partial  payments,  but  only 
then  with  the  express  reservation  that  such  partial  payments  should 
never  be  for  less  than  £4,000.000  at  a  time,  and  that  one  month's 
notice  of  them  shoidd  be  j^iven  on  each  occasion.  Under  no  circum- 
stances, from  first  to  last,  was  any  payment  permitted  on  account. 

Two  main  conditions,  therefore,  <j;o\erned  the  operation  :  the 
first,  th:it  all  payments  made  in  anythinjf  but  coin  or  a  proper 
German  form  were  to  be  converted  into  a  German  form  at  the 
expense  of  Fiance  ;  the  second,  that  the  proceeds  of  all  bills  or 
securities  which  fell  due  prior  to  the  date  fixed  for  an  instalment, 


't! 


Tlir:    FRENCH    INDr.MNI'lV. 


241 


)n(litit)ns 
c'd  ill  thf 
tTsaillc's. 
187!.  It 
s  can  l)c 
any,  and 
)ulch,  or 
it  class." 
T  tlialcr, 
it  tliu  in- 


^.000 

),00() 
).()00 

j.ooo 
J, 000 

:ent. 

vas  to  be 
m  ilorins. 
lent  con- 
It  ;  it  was 
quivalcnt 
''  libcra- 

,t  he  paid 
and  tliat 
till  July, 
hut  only 

Ills  should 

month's 

)  circum- 

account. 

ion  :  the 

a  propel" 

in  at   the 

bills  or 

italment, 


were  to  he  luld  over  until  that  date.  The  dates  themselves  were 
ultimately  clKm<4ed  —  the  last  payment  was  advanced  si\  montlis  ; 
!)ut,  with  two  special  exceptions,  tliose  conditions  were  rigorously 
enforced  throughout  the  entile  hiisiness. 

As  the  annexation  of  iMsace-l.iiMaine  to  the  <  Jerman  ICmpire 
ohli''ed  the  Ha^'tern  Railwav  Compaiu-  ol'  I'rance  to  ahandon  all 
its  lines  within  those  proviiici's,  it  was  aLjreed  that  (iermany 
>,hould  pay  I'wi-  them,  that  the  price  should  he  t'l^.ooo.ooo.  and 
that  this  sum  should  he  deducted  from  the  indemnity.  This 
was  the  iiist  exception.  The  second  was,  that  (iennanv  con- 
sented, as  a  favor,  to  accept  t'^.ooo.fKJo  in  I'^rench  hank-notis. 
IJy  these  two  means  the  f200,ooo.o(xi  were  reduced  to  t'lSj.- 
o(X),fXJO.  I5ut  thereto  must  he  added  t'l  2.065.000  Ibr  interest 
which  accrued  successively  durin;^  the  transaction,  and  which 
carried  the  total  tor  payment  in  coin  or  (Jerman  uione\  to  L'i()|.- 
065,000.  And  even  tliis  was  not  (piite  all,  ibr  l"'rance  had  to 
t'urnish  a  further  sum  of  about  £580, (X)o  tor  exchange,  and  Ibr 
expenses  in  the  conversion  of  Ibrein'n  securities  into  (ierman 
value.  This  last  amount  iloes  not  ap})ear  t(j  be  linallv  aLjreetl 
between  the  two  (jovernments  —  there  is  a  dispute  about  it;  but 
as  the  diilerence  exteiuls  only  to  a  few  thousand  pounds,  the  linal 
sum  lemitted  may  be  taken  at  about  £'191,6.45,000.  or  at  I'njy.- 
645,000,  if  we  include  the  t'5.000.000  of  French  bank-notes. 
The  £.'i3.ooo,cx)0  cretlited  tor  the  railways  carried  the  entire  total 

,0(X). 


:P 


-15  • 


IMie  llrst  payment  (in  I'^rench  bank-notes)  was  made  on  1st 
June,  1S71.  As  the  tlrst  loan  was  not  bi()U;4"ht  out  until  the  end 
of  the  same  month,  .£.'5,000,000  were  taken  tor  the  pur|X)se  from 
the  l?ank  of  France  ;  but  witii  that  exce[)tion  and  subject  to  tem- 
porar}'  advances  (as  will  be  seen  hereailer),  the  funds  for  the  en- 
tire out|^foin_i;  were  provided  by  the  two  j;reat  loans;  the  interest 
was,  however,  charj^ed  separately  to  the  budi^et.  Consequently, 
the  monev  was  derived  successivelv  iVom  the  followinjj;  sources  :  — 


The  value  of  the  Alsace-Lorraine  railways 
Loan  from  the  Bank  of  France    . 
Out  of  the  iirst  loan  tor  two  milliards  . 
Out  of  the  second  loan  tor  three  milliards 


.£13, 000, OCX) 

5,000,000 

62..J7S.OOO 

ijo.  10  J. 000 


Out  of  the  budgets  of  1872  and  1873  (interest),       iJ.o65,(xx) 
Total £212.645.000 


:;f     ■" 


MjV' 


242 


SKLKCTIONS. 


It  is  not  necessary  to  fjo  into  the  details  of  the  dealinj^'s  witli 
tlie  IJank  of  France,  of  the  subscription  of  the  loans,  or  of  the 
dates  and  profiortions  of  the  payments  made  upon  them  ;  it  will 
snOice  to  observe,  as  rej^ards  those  elements  of  the  siil)ject,  that 
thoiij^h  the  payments  on  the  loans  came  in,  nominally,  before  the 
dates  lixed  for  the  delivery  of  the  correspondinjjf  instalments  to 
(ierman)',  thev,  practically,  were  not  always  available  in  time. 
The  reason  was,  that  thouj^h  the  actual  handing  over  to  Berlin 
took  place  at  fixed  periods,  the  remittances  themselves  were 
necessarilv  both  anterior  and  continuous,  their  proceeds  bein<f 
accumulated  by  French  ai^ents  until  wanted.  'JMie  result  was 
that  the  French  Ministry  of  Finance  was  under  the  necessity  of 
makin;^  almost  constant  advances  on  account  of  those  remittances. 
Each  time  a  payment  was  comiu;^  due,  the  means  ot"  etlectin;^  it 
had  to  be  arranged  long  beforehand.  It  is  not  possible  to  collect 
or  carrv  i.'jo,o<)0,0(X)  at  a  week's  notice  ;  so  the  Trcasmy  was  of 
course  obliged  to  keep  on  buying  bills  as  fast  as  it  could  get  them, 
in  order  to  have  a  stock  in  hand  for  future  needs.  'J'hat  stock 
fluctuated  a  good  deal,  and  there  is  some  contradiction  in  M. 
Leon  .Say's  report  as  to  its  amount ;  but  it  appears,  at  one  period, 
to  have  ranged  for  months  as  high  as  ,£;^o, 000,000,  part  (jf  the 
cash  to  pay  for  it  being  provided  temporarily,  until  the  loan 
moneys  came  in,  either  by  Exchequer  bills,  or  by  tb.e  Bank  of 
France  in  notes. 

There  was,  moreover,  towards  the  end  of  the  operation,  an 
advance  made  specially  in  gold  l)y  the  Bank  of  France;  and,  as 
the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  eflected  present  a  certain 
interest,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  state  them.  In  May,  1S73,  the 
French  Treasury  had  before  it  the  obligation  of  providing 
i'40,000,000  between  5th  June  and  5th  September;  ^^24,000,000 
of  bills  were  in  hand  for  the  purpose,  and  about  i' 10  000,000  of 
instalments  were  coming  due  on  the  loan  ;  bvtt  there  was,  at  the 
best,  a  clear  deficit  of  about  £6,000,000  in  the  resources  available. 
The  Baid-c  of  France  agreed  to  supply  that  sum  ;  but  as,  at  that 
very  moment,  the  circulation  of  its  notes  had  reached  .£112,000,- 
000,  and  as  it  had,  conseciuently,  only  a  margin  of  £16,000,000 
between  that  figure  and  its  total  authorized  issue  of  £128,000,000, 
it  seemed  dangerous  to  withilraw  £6,000,000  of  that  margin  in 
notes,  and  it  was  decideil  to  eHect  the  loan,  by  preference,  in 
gold.  It  is  worth  remarking  that  this  is  probably  the  first  exam- 
ple, in  the  history  of  national  banks,  of  a  bank  electing  to  make 


W 


TIIK    IRI'.NCII    INDKMMTV 


!43 


i<js  witli 
)r  of  tlic 
;  it  will 
JL'ct,  that 
L'forc  the 

IRMltS    to 

in  time, 
o  Hcilin 
/cs  were 
lis  beitijjj 
•siilt  was 
essity  of 
littances. 
ectiiijj  it 
to  collect 
ly  was  of 
^ct  them, 
lat  stock 
)n  in  M. 
e  period, 
rt  of  the 
the  loan 
lank   of 

tion,  an 
and,    as 

certain 

S73,  the 

roviding 

OCX), 000 

0,000  of 

,  at  the 

ailable. 
,  at  that 
12,000,- 
000,000 

XK),000, 

ngin  in 
ence,  in 
t  exam- 
^o  make 


an  advance  in  jjold,  as  beinj^  less  ''  (lan«ferons  "  thai\  the  delivery 
of  its  own  notes.  The  French  Treasmy  was,  of  course,  well 
j)leased  to  obtain  bullion,  which  was  immediately  "  liberative," 
instead  of  notes,  which  would  have  had  to  be  converted  into  bills 
at  various  dates,  liut,  after  all,  this  aid  did  not  sufl'ice  ;  the  in- 
comings from  the  loan  did  not  arrive,  practically,  in  time  for  use, 
and  the  Treasury  had  t(»  supply  a  further  final  balance  of  t'9, 760,- 
(XX)  to  enable  the  concluding  payment  to  Germany  to  be  regularly 
etVected. 

Finally,  it  may  be  noted  that  there  were  thirty-three  deliveries 
to  Germanv,  the  component  parts  of  each  of  which  were  so 
scrupulously  verilied  by  the  representatives  of  the  Herlin  I'inance 
Department  that  several  days  were  occupied  by  the  counting,  on 
each  occasion.  Indeed,  when  thalers  had  to  be  told  up,  the 
maximum  got  through  in  a  day  never  exceeded  I'^.'.ooo. 

After  these  preliminary  explanations  we  c;"n  now  begin  to  show 
the  means  by  which  the  transfer  was  performed.  We  will  divide 
them,  in  the  (Irst  instance,  into  four  categories:  — 


1.  German   bank-tiotes  and  money   col- 

lected in  France  alter  the  war 

2.  French  gold  and  silver 

3.  French  bank-notes    .  .  .  . 

4.  Bills  ...... 

Total  ...... 


t'4,201 ,000 

20,492,000 

5 ,000,000 

169.952,000 

,€i99,645,ofx> 


The  first  observation  to  be  made  here  is,  that  the  German 
money  found  in  France  amounts  to  a  singularh'  large  sum  ;  in- 
deed, if  this  proof  of  its  impf)rtance  hatl  uoi  been  furnished,  no 
one  could  possibly  have  suspected  that  the  invadiis,  for  their  per- 
sonal and  private  necessities,  had  spent  anything  like  so  much. 
Their  wants,  as  soldiers,  were  supplied,  during  the  war,  either  by 
stores  sent  from  Germatiy,  or  by  reciuisitions  le\  ied  in  France  ; 
until  peace  was  signed  they  paid  for  no  objects  of  pid)lic  or  offi- 
cial need :  all  this  cash  represented,  therefore,  indiviilual  expen- 
diture. And,  manifestly,  the  real  total  must  have  been  still  larger. 
It  cannot  be  supposeil  that  the  whole  of  the  German  money 
spent  in  France  was  reserved,  by  its  French  proprietors,  for  sale 
to  their  own  Government ;  it  maybe  taken  for  granted  that  a  con- 


11 


mi 


ppp 


m 


244 


SELLCriONS. 


8i(leral)lc  jxntion  of  it  went  l)ack  slraij^'lit  to  (iiMiiKiny  tlirotij^li 
ordinary  cliaiiiicls  ;  ami  il  maybe  j^iifssfd  that  tin-  iiitiii'  sum  cx- 
pciidc'ii  l»y  tlii.'  i.:oM(|iKT(jrs,  out  of  tlair  individual  ri'sourccs,  in 
( icrman  nioiay,  was  at  least  ji  half  more  than  the  amomit  here 
shown,  and  that  it  foiis('<iueiitly  attaini'd  LVj.ooo.ooo.  The  (|ues- 
tion  is  curious,  and  this  is  the  lirst  time  that  any  ollicial  intorma- 
tion  hearinj^'  on  it  has  been  j)ultlished.  It  remains  to  add.  as 
regards  this  clement  of  the  paNinent,  that,  as  nii^lit  have  been 
expected,  tin-  (iennan  tiioney  was  included,  almost  entirelv.  in 
the  earlier  instalments,  and  that  scarcely  any  ol"  it  appeared  in  the 
later  remittances. 

The  Cjo.  ((;i,o(X)  of  French  money  was  composed  of  tio,- 
9^0,000  in  i^old  and  i.'(;, 572,000  ill  silver.  Hut  il  should  bu  said 
at  once  that  these  figures  express  oid\  tiie  amounts  transmitted  i)v 
the  l-'rencii  (iovernment  olbcially,  and  do  not  comprise  the  (pian- 
tities  of  French  i^old  liou^ht  by  Germany  or  forwarded  l>y  pri\ate 
bankers  to  cover  theii"  own  bills;  these  other  (piantities  will  be 
referred  to  pieseiuly.  l'6.ooo,iX)o  of  the  (jovernment  ^^old  were 
supplied  bv  the  liaid<  of  France  ;  the  rest  was  bouj^ht  Irom  dealers 
or  furnished  liy  tlie  Treasury.  Of  the  silver,  l'5.S.|o.o(X)  wci'e 
obtained  in  Fiance,  and  £T,,'jT,2,oao  were  drawn,  in  bars,  from 
Ilambur;^.  and  coined  in  Faris. 

Ibit  these  direct  remittances  of  German  and  French  cash  re[")re- 
sented,  after  all,  only   about  one-eij^hth   of   the   enlii'e    payment  ; 
the  otiier  seven-eii^hths  were  translerred   by  bills,  and  il  is  in  this 
section  of  the  matter  that  its  jrreat  interest  lies.      It  will  at  once 
be  seen  that,  as  uo  remittance  in  pa]x'r  became  "'  liberative"  until 
it  was  converted   into  an  e(]ui\alent  value   in   thalers  oi-  in  tlorins. 
the  French   Tn-asury  coulil  obtain   no   receipt   Ibr  an   instalment 
until   ;dl    its  various  elements    had    been  so  converted  ;   ilsol)jecl. 
therefore,  was  to  obtain   the   larj^est  possible  amount  of  bills  op 
Germany,  so  that,  at  their  matiu"ity,  their   proceeds  mi<^lit  be  at 
once  available   in  the  prescribed   form.      JJut.  at   the  same  time,  il 
was  cpiite  impossible  to  collect  in  France  alone,  within  the  time  il 
loweil.  anythinjij  approachin<f  to  the  cpiantity  of  (iermaii   bill 
(piired.     The  result  was,  that  it  was  found  necessar\  •     '    ■>' 
hand   in  a  larjjje  amount  of  bills  on  other  countries,  \  1   li.c 

be  converted  into  German  values  at  the  cost  of  Fraui  l>ut  al  . 
as  reti^ards  the  purchase  of  direct  bills  on  (jcrmany,  to  etl'ei  •  it 
frequently  in  two  staj^es.  In  the  first  t'tage,  bills  were  bought  in 
Faris,  as  thev  otfered,  on  England,  Belgium,  or  Holland;   in  the 


Flir.    IKKNCII    INDr.MNirV 


'  Slim  ex- 
pirees, in 
)iint  here 
riic  (|iies- 
iiilonna- 
)  adil.  ;is 
lave  been 
ilirelN .  ill 
\Li\  ill  the 

of  t'lo.- 
il  he  said 
.milled  l)y 
the  <iium- 
)y  private 
■s  will  he 
ri)ld  were 
111  dealers 

OOO    will' 

)ars,  tVoiii 

ish  repie- 
a\  iiieiit  ; 
is  in  this 

at  once 
e"  until 
n  lloiiiis, 
islalmeiit 
Its  object, 

hills  OP 
;i-,t  he  at 
c  time,  it 
e  time  ,il 

hill 

hut  al^  ■, 
etVei  '    it 

OUiillL    111 

I ;   in  tlie 


I 


sccoiul,  a  portion  of  the  proceeds  of  tiiose  hills  was  reinvested,  in 
those  countries,  in  other  hills  on  (Jcrniany  itself.  Of  course  the 
French  (iovernment  was  very  anxious  to  emp!f>y  every  sort  ol" 
means  to  increase  the  (|uantity  of  (Jerman  hills,  an<l  to  avoiti 
leavin<i  to  tlie  (ierman  Treasury  the  ri^lil  of  convertiii;^  foreign 
paper  inlo  German  value  at  T'lench  expense.  At  the  orij^iii  of 
the  operation  the  importance  of  this  eknieiit  of  it  was  not  fuily 
realized  ;  hut  hy  dei^rees  the  I'n-nch  minii^ter  discovered  that  it 
was  far  more  advantaj^eous  to  ell'ect  his  conversions  himself  than 
to  leave  them  to  he  carried  out  anyhow  at  Berlin.  'I"he  result  of 
this  discovery  was,  that  while  t'45.j,ooo  were  |)ai(l  to  (niinanv 
for  the  cost  of  conversion  on  the  lirst  two  milliards,  oiilv  Ci  r.oo) 
were  paid  to  her  under  the  same  head  on  the  remaining;"  three 
milliards  ;  alter  the  experience  ot'  the  lirst  twelve  months,  I'laiico 
sou<(ht  for  hills  on  (icrmany  wherever  she  could  i^ct  them,  all 
over  ICurope  ;  and  it  may  he  added  that  she  wassoinewiiat  aided  in 
the  ellort  hy  the  special  position  of  (iermany,  who,  at  the  moment, 
was  in  deht  considerahlv  to  lOiii^land  not  onlv  tor  the  war  loans  slie 
had  issued  there,  hiit  also  on  conunercial  account  as  well.  Iliit.  as 
has  just  heen  mentioned,  a  jj^ood  many  of  these  hills  were  siih- 
stitutions  for  each  other,  and,  conse(|uently,  the  amouiu  of 
paper  shown  as  houj^ht  is  considerably  laiLjer  than  tlie  real 
sum  paid  to  (lerniany.  the  reason  heinj^  that  a  j^ood  deal  of 
it  appears  in  the  account  twice  t)ver.  'I'he  followiiii^  laldc 
gives  the  composition  of  the  t(jtal  quantity  of  hills  I'ought  hy 
France  :  — 


Bills  on   Germany,  bouf^ht  direct,  in  thalers 
Do.  do.  in  Horins 

Do.  hout^ht,  in   thalers,  with   the 

proceeds  of  other  bills 
Do.  in  reichsmarcs 

Do.    En<flan(l,  in  steriin<^  .... 

Do.    Ilamhurii^,  in  marcs-banco 
Do.    Belj^inm,  in  francs  ..... 
Do.    Holland,  in  llorins  .  .  .  .  . 

Total  ....... 


£62.550,000 

9.5.|.S.(x)o 

.\2.2  iS.OOO 

3.172,000 
61  .jSo.ooo 
2  I  ..\;\z. ()()() 

20.  N:^  6.0(^0 
I  2.05 -.o(>> 

,£23  |.5()S. 000 


hesc  bills  were  paid  for,  mainly,  in  French  hank-notes ;  and 


!  i: 


yr" 


>ii 


2  46 


SELECTIONS. 


the  avcrajjc  rates  of  exchange  at  which   they  were  bought  came 
out  as  follows,  for  the  entire  operation  :  — 


Thalers 

Pounds  sterling 
Marcs-hanco 
Belgian  francs  . 
Dutch  florins     . 
Frankfort  florins 
Reichsniarcs 


Kraiics, 
3.7910 

25-494.'? 
I  .90S9 

1 .006 1 

2.1500 

2.1637 

1.2^28 


Every  one  at  all  acquainted  with  exchanges  will  recognize  how 
low,  under  such  circumstances,  these  prices  are;  and  will  ask, 
with  wonder,  how  they  can  have  been  kept  down  to  such  averages 
on  so  large  an  undertaking. 

But  though  the  f()rcgt)ing  table  shows  the  quantities  of  bills,  of 
each  kind,  that  were  bought  by  the  French  Govcrnnient  as 
vehicles  of  transmission,  it  in  no  way  indicates  the  form  in  which 
the  money  was  in  reality  handed  over  to  the  German  Treasury. 
Most  of  the  above  figures  were  largely  modified  by  conversions 
and  substitutions;  and  when  all  the  bills  had  been  cashed  —  when 
the  whole  jjaymcnt  had  been  etl'ected  —  it  appeared  that  the  real 
totals  of  each  sort  of  currency  which  had  been  fmally  delivered 
to  Germanv  were  as  follows:  — 


French  bank-notes  . 
French  gold    . 
French  silver  . 
German  notes  and  cash  . 
Tils —  Thalers       . 
Do.  —  Fraidifort  florins 
Do.  —  Marcs-banco 
Do.  —  Reichsniarcs 
Do.   —  Dutch  florins 
Do.  —  (and    in    silver)  - 

tVancs 
Do.  —  Founds  sterling  . 

Total    . 


Belgian 


£5 ,000,000 

10,920,000 

9,572,000 

4,20l,(XX5 
99,412,000 

9,4o4.o<x> 

10, 60S. 000 

3.190,000 

I0,020,CXX) 

11,828,000 
25,49o,o(X) 

i' 1 99. 645, 000 


TiiK  frp:ncii  indcmmtv. 


247 


This  catalogue  shows,  at  last,  in  what  shape  tlie  hills  were 
really  utilized  and  made  "  liherative,"  either  in  Oeriiian  money 
direct,  or  h\  the  equivalent  of  toreiijn  vahie  in  thalers  or  florins. 
The  diflerences  of  composition  hetween  this  definitive  iist  and 
that  of  the  hdls  orij^inally  houglit,  are  onlv  partially  explained  by 
M.  Leon  Say  ;  it  is  not,  however,  necessary,  nor  would  it  he 
interesting,  to  follow  out  precisely  the  various  conversions  which 
took  place;  —  we  will  oidy  mention,  as  an  illustration,  that,  out 
of  the  .£'61,780,000  of  original  bills  in  Enghnul,  t'3 1,68 7, 000  were 
converted  here  into  other  bills  on  Germany,  that  .Hz^.^ijn^cxiO 
were  sent  to  Berlin  in  sterling  bill,  and  that  the  balance  remains 
unexplained.  As  regartls  the  direct  delivery,  by  France  herself, 
of  English,  Belgian,  or  Dutch  Inilli'in,  the  report  says  nothing; 
it  is  only  statetl,  incidentally,  that  £720, (XX)  of  Belgian  iVancs 
were  sent  to  Berlin  in  metal,  and  that  the  London  agency  of  the 
French  Treasury  bought  ,£1,132,000  here  in  gold  and  silver, 
which,  probably,  was  also  shipped  to  Berlin  ;  but  these  are  the 
sole  allusions  to  the  subject.  It  is  probable,  as  indeed  has  always 
been  supposed,  that  the  bullion  which  was  withdrawn,  during  the 
operation,  from  London,  Brussels,  and  Amsterdam,  was  not  taken 
for  French  account,  but  bv  Germany,  out  of  the  sums  at  her  dis- 
posal  in  each  place  after  the  bills  on  that  place  had   1?  'tured. 

We  have  now  before  us,  in  a  condenseil  form,  the  main  ele- 
ments of  this  prodigious  operation  ;  we  see  now  what  were  the 
conditions  which  regulated  it,  where  the  money  came  from  to 
realize  it,  how  that  money  was  successively  employed,  and  in 
what  shapes  the  payments  were  at  last  effected. 


r'^W 


We  recognize  that  France  herself  provided,  in 
her  own  notes  and  coin  . 

**  that  German  money  and  bills  on 

Germany  produced  . 

*♦  and  that  bills  on  England,  Bel- 

gium, and  Holland  contributed 


Total 


£25,492,000 

i26,Si5,o<jo 

47,338,000 

£'i99,645,o(x> 


Here,  however,  we  must  repeat  that  the  Paris  bankers  who  sold 
drafts  on  Germany  were  obliged,  to  some  extent,  to  remit  cash  to 
meet  them.     On  this  point  M.  Leon  Say  goes  into  calculations 


K  f:  it 


HI  ■■ 


248 


SELECTIONS. 


IP 


wliicli  \vc  will  incMition  jiicsentlv  ;  for  the  moment  it  will  suf- 
fice to  say  that,  accordiiij^  to  his  view,  the  efVective  transmission 
of  hiillion  from  France  to  Cicrmanv.  thr()u<j^li  private  hands,  tVom 
1 87 1  to  1S73,  (lid  not  exceed  i.'8.(KX),cxx)  for  the  purposes  in  view 
lieie.  He  acI<nowled<j;es.  as  will  he  seen,  that  tiie  entire  exporta- 
tion of  French  <^old  durin;^  the  three  years  reached  (probably) 
.£ 4o,cxx),cx)o ;  but  still  he  expresses  the  opinion  that  t'S,(xx),cxK) 
were  all  that  was  reijuired,  as  a  balance,  to  cover  the  I'^ench  bills 
on  Herlin.  Of  course  this  is  a  question  which  nobody  can  de- 
cide ;  but,  to  lookers  on,  it  does  seem  somewhat  contrary  to  the 
probabilities  of  such  a  case  that  this  sum  can  have  been  sutli- 
cient.  It  may,  perhaps,  have  been  enou<^h,  as  M.  Say  says,  to 
balance  accounts  in  the  lon<^-run,  but  it  is  dillicult  to  believe  that 
it  was  not  considerably  exceeded  while  the  oj)eration  was  under 
execution.  I'urthermore,  M.  Leon  Say  makes  a  mistakes  of 
X'lo.ooo.ooo  in  iiis  accoiuit,  as  we  shall  shou  ;  and,  for  that  rea- 
son, we  belie\e  that  t'iS,(XX),(xxj  instead  of  £'8,(XX).oo()  were  re- 
quired, so  puttin<j;  the  wliole  total  of  French  bullion  temporarily 
used,  induditii^  the  £20,ooo,cxx)  of  the  Government,  at  about 
JL'38,cxx).oo(),  or  a  little  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  entire  sum  to 
j)ay.  As  this  is  certainly  a  maximmn,  it  follows  that  France  got 
out  of  this  great  debt  with  a  payment  of  only  18  per  cent,  of  it, 
at  the  outside,  in  her  own  money.  And  there  is  good  reason  to 
suppose  that  all  the  gold  exported  by  her  has  come  back,  and 
that  her  reserves  of  bullion  are  reconstituted  at  present  as  they 
were  before  the  war. 

And  now  we  can  approach  the  most  important  and  interesting 
point  in  the  whole  transaction.  How  came  it  that  t' 1 7o,(XX),ooo 
of  bills  could  be  got  at  all  ?  We  have  given  a  general  answer  to  the 
question  at  the  commencement  of  this  article  ;  we  will  now  con- 
.sitler  it  more  in  detail,  partly  with  the  aid  of  M.  Feon  Say's 
report,  partly  by  reference  to  other  sources  of  information.  It 
appears,  as  might  have  been  expected,  that  various  measures  were 
cmj)loyed  by  the  French  Ciovernment  in  order  to  render  possible 
the  collection  of  such  a  huge  mass  of  paper.  In  the  iirst  place, 
particular  facilities  anil  temptations  were  olVered  to  foreigners  to 
induce  them  to  subscribe  to  the  two  loans  ;  commissions  varving 
from  ^  to  I  per  cent,  were  ollered  to  them,  —  the  object  being  to  ac- 
quire the  power  of  drawing  on  them  for  the  ymount  t>f  their  instal- 
ments. Secondly,  e\erything  was  done  to  encourage  anticipated 
payments  of  those  instalments,  so  as  to  hasten  tlie  dates  at  which 


will  siif- 
ismissioii 
ids,  tVoin 
s  in  view 

c\])ort:i- 
)n)l)al)ly) 

^,(XX).CX)0 

•Mcli  i)ills 
:  can  dc- 
rv  to  the 
-•on  siitli- 
.■  says,  to 
iove  that 
as  iiiuler 
stakes  of 
that  rea- 

\\ere  re- 
iiporarily 

at  about 
'  sum  to 
auce  <;ot 
nt.  of  it, 
eason  to 

ick,  aud 
as  they 

terestiug 

(XX),000 

r  to  the 
\v  eoM- 
u  Sav's 

lOtl.        It 

es  were 
possible 
t  place, 
fliers  to 
vaiyinj;- 
1.1,'toac- 
r  iustal- 
icipated 
t  whicii 


:u  J 


TIIK    rRKNCII    INDF.MXnV. 


2A( 


49 


they  could  be  drawn  for.  Thirdly,  as  sonic  fear  was  felt  that  the 
second  loan  nii<^ht  possil)lv  not  be  eat^erly  subscribed,  coming,  as 
it  did,  so  iMiniediately  after  a  previous  issue  which  was  not  (|uite 
paid  up,  it  was  tliou;4ht  desirable  to  <ret  a  portion  of  it  fjuaranteed 
by  bankers.  But,  in  order  not  to  risk  ^ivinj;  to  those  bankers  a 
larLje  conmiission  for  nothin<4,  it  was  stipidated  \\  illi  them,  as  a 
part  of  the  arran^^ement,  that  thev  should  supplv  the  Treasury 
with  a  \]\V{\  (|uautitv  of  forei<;n  bills.  l>y  the  two  forna-r  plans 
of  action  the  immense  amount  of  £70, 9^0,000  of  drafts  on  other 
countries  was  obtained,  €15.960,000  of  which  were  on  account 
of  the  first  loan,  and  £5-|,96o,0(X)  on  account  of  the  second  ;  and 
it  may  be  remarked  at  once,  before  we  j)rocee(l.  that  thoULjh  this 
ti<^ure  sup])lies  decisive  evidence  of  the  fact  that  at  least  one-third 
of  the  two  i^reat  loans  was  paid  up  V)y  foreinii  subscribers,  it  is 
certain  that  nearly  the  entire  amount  has  been  bout^ht  back  since, 
and  that  almost  the  whole  of  the  new  stocks  is,  at  the  present 
moment,  in  French  hands.  Hy  the  third  plan,  the  bankeis  who 
formed  the  syndicate  —  and  it  may  be  mentioned  that  iit"t\-ii\e  of 
the  llrst  houses  in  I^nroj^e  were  associate<l  lor  llu'  purjjose  — 
en<;a<j;ed  to  sup|)ly  £28.000,000  of  paper.  Conse(iuentlv,  bv 
these  adtnirably  devised  schemes,  £'98,920,000  of  drafts  were 
successivelv  piocured.  and  the  exact  (juantitv  to  be  bou;^ht  in  the 
open  market  was  reduced  to  £71 ,032,000;. 

It  must.  ho\ve\er.  be  observed, that  though  we  can  le^ard  these 
drafts  on  foieiL^n  countries  for  loan  instalments  as  a  special  jirod- 
uct  of  the  occasion,  and  are  thereiore  justilied  in  countinj^  them 
apart,  the  same  cannot  anyhow  be  said  of  tlii'  1.'28.o(K).ocxj  of 
bills  t\niilshed  bv  the  sxiidicate  of  bankers.  The  latter  were 
evidenth'  composed  of  ordinary  commercial  paper,  antl  conse- 
(juently  must  be  added  to  the  total  which  had  to  lie  sup- 
])lied  from  commercial  sources  proper,  so  puttiiiji;  that  total 
at  ,£99,032,(K)o.  Now,  bills  of  this  sort  necessarily  imply 
an  etl'ective  counter-\  alue  of  some  kiiul  ;  so,  as  we  have  already 
seen    that   at     the    outside    only     .£i8.ooo,fxjo    of    that    comiter- 


value  was  supplied   in  bullio 
000 


tl 


lere  remame( 


1  at   least     l\Si 


OX2, 


of  bills  which  must  necessarily  have  been  based  on  ordinary 
trading  or  financial  operations.  What  were  those  ojjeiations.'' 
Very  often  the  j^eneral  character  of  a  bill  is  indicatiMJ  on  its  face  ; 
but  in  this  case  a  test  ^A'  that  kind  couUl  not  be  applied,  not  oidy 
because  there  were  so  many  bills  to  handle  that  a  serious  exami- 


nation of  their  nature  was  impractical; 


le  (tl 


lere   were,  m  a 


11, 


one 


!  I 


';»» 


(iir; 


I 


250 


SELECTIONS. 


huiulrcd  ami  twenty  thousaiul  of  them,  of  every  conceivable  amount 
from  £40  to  .£joo,ooo),  but  also  because  every  possible  kind 
of  business  transaction  must  have  been  represented  in  that  accu- 
mulation of  scciM'ities  from  all  parts  of  the  work!.  Hank  credits, 
circulation  bills,  settlements  for  goods  delivered,  remittances  on 
account  of  future  purchases,  drafts  aj^ainst  the  cou|)ons  of  shares 
and  stocks,  special  paper  created  for  tlie  occasion,  —  all  these 
forms,  and  many  others,  too,  were,  accordin<j  to  M.  Leon  Say, 
included  in  the  collection.  It  was  not  possible  to  seek  out  in 
detail  the  ori<2^ins  and  meanin<2;s  of  such  a  varied  mass  ;  but  we 
may  take  M.  Say's  ^^eneral  descriptif)n  of  it  to  be  true,  not  only 
because  it  corresponds  with  probabilities  and  exjjcrience,  but  also 
because  he  was  himself  Minister  of  Finance  durinj^  a  part  of  the 
operation,  and  has  therefore  a  personal  knowledge  of  its  main  cir- 
cumstances. Researches,  however,  which  could  not  be  attempted 
with  the  bills  themselves,  may  be  practically  and  usefully  pursued 
if  they  are  directed  towards  the  general  signs  and  symptoms  of 
the  linaiicial  state  of  France.  It  is  probable  that  a  relatively 
small  amount  of  bills  was  createil  specially  to  be  sold  to  the 
French  Government.  We  may,  iiuleed,  take  the  supposed 
i,'i8,cxx),C)00  of  exporteil  bullion  as  indicating  the  approximate 
extent  <.)i  uncovered  or  manufactiued  paper;  all  the  rest  was 
evidently  based  on  mercantile  transactions.  Now.  we  know  that 
mercantile  transactions  imply  the  delivery  of  property  of  some 
kinil,  and  that  the  two  main  forms  of  property,  commercially, 
are  merchandise  and  stocks.  It  is  therefore  necessary,  in  order  to 
arrive  at  an  idea  upon  the  (juestion,  to  glance  at  the  actual  posi- 
tion of  France  in  her  dealings  with  other  nations  in  these  two 
values. 

We  ha\e  already  alluded  to  the  development  of  French  trade, 
and  to  the  general  intluence  of  that  development  on  the  payment 
of  the  war  indenniity  as  a  whole  ;  but  we  must  go  into  a  few 
figures  here  in  order  to  make  the  bearings  of  the  subject  clear. 
The  value  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  France  —  importations  and 
exportations  together  —  was  £'.157,000,000  in  1S71,  €293,000,000 
in  1S72,  and  i'301  ,o<x),ooo  in  1873.  Now,  it  will  be  at  once 
rccogni/ed  that  the  amoun  >f  bills  necessitated  by  this  cpiantity 
of  commerce  supplied  a  solid  foundation  for  carrying  the  addi- 
tional paper  whose  origin  we  are  now  seeking  to  discover.  M. 
Say  is  of  opinion  that  scarcely  any  part  of  the  indemnity  bills  was 
furnished  by  the  current  commercial  trade  of  the  country  ;  but,  as 


I  '   : 


T^.  '] 


TIIK    FkKNCn    INDKMNITV. 


251 


amount 
)le  kind 
at  accii- 
ciedits. 
mces  on 
f  shares 
11    these 
:on  Say. 
t  out  in 
but  we 
not  only 
but  also 
rt  of  the 
nain  cii- 
tenipted 
pursued 
ptoins  of 
elatively 
;1   to  the 
upposed 
roximate 
St  was 
)W  that 
if  some 
rcially, 
order  to 
lal  posi- 
iet:e  two 

trade, 
aymcnt 

a  few 
ct  clear. 
)ns  and 
■000,000 
at  once 
juantity 
le  addi- 
;r.  M. 
ills  was 

but,  as 


we  have  just  seen  that  the  quantity  required  from  tradin^j  sources 
was  JL'S 1 ,000,000,  or  about  t'.jo,0(K),ooo  per  annum,  it  does  seem 
to  be  possible,  notwitiistaiulinjj;  his  contrary  impression,  that  some 
portion  of  that  relatively  reduced  (piantitv  may  have  been   found 


ni 


the 


ordinary   commercial    movemen 


It.      F 


or   instance,    it   may 


reasonably  be  arj^ued — as  indeed  M.  I^av  himself  admits  —  that 
bills  drawn  a<^ainst  French  exports  to(jermanyor  lMiu;laiul  would 
be  included,  to  some  extent,  amonj^st  those  which  were  olVered 
to  the  Government.  There  seems  to  be  no  reas(jn  why  this 
should   not    have   been    so. 

Hut  if  M.  Say  considers  that  the  habitual  commercial  paper  of 
Fiance  has  not  been  of  much  service  to  the  Treasury  in  its  con- 
duct of  this  operation,  he  holds  a  totally  ditVerent  opinion  with 
retereiice  to  the  influence  of  the  forei^^n  investments  of  the  French 
people.  What  he  says  on  this  subject  is  new  and  curious,  and  is 
well   worth  repeatinjjj. 

lie  be<ijins  by  statin^r.  with  an  appearance  of  much  truth  and 
reason,  that  for  many  years  before  the  war,  French  capital  was 
l)eing  continuously  invested  in  foreij^n  securities;  that  the  sums 
so  placed  have  been  estimated  by  dill'erent  economists  at  from 
t'3o,ooo,CKX)  to  £rKi,o(X),ooo  a  year.  Here,  however,  before  we 
follow  out  his  ai<iument,  we  must  open  a  parenthesis,  and  observe 
that  if  even  the  smaller  of  these  lijj;ures  is  exact,  the  computation 
of  ,£'8o,o(X),ooo  of  annual  savin<js,  which  \\:is  alluded  t«)  at  the 
commencement  of  this  article,  must  be  altojj^ether  w  ronj:;.  It  is 
manifestly  inadmissible  that  France  can  have  been  investinjif  in 
forei<;n  countries  three-eij^hths  of  her  whole  net  yearly  profits. 
Consequently,  we  may  leL(itimately  suppose  that  the  popular  im- 
pression about  the  t\So,ooo,(XX)  is  a  delusion,  ami  that  Fiance  is 
in  reality  laviiifj^  by  a  vast  deal  more  than  that.  If  so,  the  ease 
and  speed  with  which  she  has  recovered  from  the  war  would  be 
comprehensibly  explained.  M.  Leon  Say  goes  on  to  ti'U  us  that 
French  investments  in  foreit^n  stocks  amounted  in  1870  to  so  larj^e 
a  total,  that  the  dividends  on  them  represented,  at  that  date,  about 
,£25.ooo,0(X)  a  year,  for  which  sum  drafts  on  other  countries  were 
of  course  put  into  circulation  by  its  French  proprietors.  Further- 
more, the  revenues  of  the  strangers  who  live  in  France  come  to 
them  principally  from  their  own  country  ;  and  it  is  estimated  that, 
l)efore  the  war,  £io.fxX),ooo  or  .£12,000,000  of  such  incomes 
were  drawn  for  annually  in  the  same  way.  Consequently,  on  this 
showing,  it  >vould  appear  that  somewhere  about  i'35 ,oo(},ooo  or 


I: 


mm 


•  t) 


iiliitt^i 


1  '■'  ( 


252 


SELECTIONS. 


.£'40.000.000  of  French  drafts  on  Unc\)l,n  countries  were  created 
cverv  ^ear  from  those  two  sources.  It  is,  iiowever.  certain  that 
this  (jnantitv  has  diminished  since  the  war,  by  the  departure  of 
some  of  the  stranj^ers  who  used  to  live  in  I'^rance.  and  also  hy  the 
sale,  in  order  to  provide  funds  for  subscription  to  the  two  new 
loans,  of  some  of  the  foreij^n  securities  held  in  I'rance.  Hut  M. 
Leon  .Sa\'  considers  that  the  annual  diminution,  on  both  heads 
toj^^ether,  does  not  exceed  t'.|,ooo,cx)0,  and  that  at  least  t"30,o()0,- 
cxjo  of  pa|)er,  representing^  cash  due  to  France  on  iiccount  (jf  in- 
comes fri)m  abroad,  irrespective  of  comnierre  properlv  so  called, 
were  drawn  in  1871  and  1S72.  In  support  of  tliese  considera- 
ti(jns,  he  mentions,  amon<j^st  otiier  facts,  that  in  iSGS  and  i(S69  the 
coupons  paid  in  Paris  on  Italian  stock  alone  amoinited  to  £'3,- 
400,000;  while  in  1872  and  1S73  they  fell  to  £'2.400,0(^0.  On 
this  one  security,  therefore,  —  which  is,  however,  probably  held 
in  France  in  larger  proportions  than  any  other  foreign  stock,  —  the 
diminution  of  income  since  the  war  amounts  to  £'i  .(XX).ooo. 
With  these  figures  and  probabilities  betore  him,  he  concludes  by 
expressinjj  the  conildent  opinion  that,  as  l"'rench  purchases  of 
foreijjjn  stocks  have  ceased,  to  a  fi^reat  extent  at  least,  since  1S70, 
and  as  remittances  of  French  money  to  pay  for  such  purchases 
have  consecpiently  ceased  as  well,  tiie  drafts  on  other  countries  for 
coupons  and  revenues  became  entirely  disposable  for  transmission 
to  Herlin,  and  that  it  is  here  that  the  main  e\])lanation  lies  of  the 
facility  witii  which  the  bills  were  found.  1'liis  theorv  is  injjfen- 
ious,  and  it  is  probably,  in  Lfreat  part,  true. 

The  movement  of  tiie  precious  metals  forms  a  separate  clement 
of  the  subject,  and  one  that  is  not  easy  to  trace  out ;  for  in  France, 
as  in  most  otiier  countries,  the  jinbiic  returns  of  the  international 
trade  in  specie  are  very  incomplete.  We  know  how  much  gold 
and  silver  are  raised  from  mines,  and  how  much  thereof  is  coined 
bv  each  country;  but  we  are  very  ill  informed  as  to  what  becomes 
of  tiiem  when  once  they  have  issued  from  the  mint.  On  this 
head  also,  however,  M.  Leon  Say  has  collected  some  valuable 
facts.  Tiie  Custom-house  Reports  inform  us  that  during  the 
three  years  from  1871  to  1873,  £53,4oo,o(x:)  of  bullion  were  ex- 
ported, and  £'5o,48o,cxxD  were  imported  ;  on  this  siiowing,  there- 
fore, the  loss  of  bullion  was  only  .£.'2,920,000.  I?ut  as  private 
information  gave  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  amounts  must 
have  been  in  reality  considerably  larger,  calculations  have  been 
made  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  more  correct  conclusion.     It  appears, 


re  created 
■itain  that 
partiire  ot" 
ilso  ])y  the 

two  new 

Hut  M. 

oth   lieads 

£'30,000,- 
mnt  (A'  in- 

so  called, 
coiisidcra- 
id  1S69  the 
jd  to  £3,- 
).ooo.  On 
)l)al)ly  held 
ocU,  —  the 
.' I.  (XX).  000. 
ncliides  by 
ircliases  of 
since  1870, 

pui'cliases 
ountiies  for 
ansinisslon 

lies  of  the 

V  is  injifen- 

iite  clement 
in  France, 
iternational 
Inuich  sold 
|>f  is  coined 
lat  becomes 
On  this 
le   valuable 
durin;j^    the 
Ml  were  ex- 
in,s,  there- 
as    private 
lounts  must 
have  been 
lit  appears, 


i 


THE    FRENXII    INDKMMTV.  253 

from  official  publications,  that  the  stock  of  <jold  and  silver  in  the 
Christian  world  is  supposed  to  have  increased  by  £371  ,fxxj.(xx) 
from  I'S-iy  to  1S67  ;  but  the  auj^meiitation  has  not  occurred  in 
both  the  metals  —  it  has  taken  place  in  ^old  only  :  the  ipiantity 
of  ;(ol(l  is  fijreater  by  £42S,ooo,cxx).  while,  in  i  <»n».e(|uence  of 
exportations  to  Asia,  the  (piantity  of  silver  h;is  (linnni>lu-d  by 
£57.fXX),cx)o.  Now,  out  of  this  £428,ooo.o(><)  of  new  ;^old, 
France  alone,  in  the  lirst  instance,  received  more  than  half:  at 
least  we  are  justified  in  sup])()sin<:j  so,  from  the  fact  that,  during 
tlie  same  period,  the  I'aris  mint  converted  £j3o.(xx).0(xj  of  bar 
<4old  into  French  coin.  Of  c(nnse  this  (piantity  of  ^old  did  not 
remain  permanently  in  France  ;  its  whole  value  was  not  added  in 
realitv  to  the  j^eneral  French  stock  of  metal  :  as  j^old  ;irrivcd  in 
France  silver  went  away  ;  indeed  it  is  imagined  that .  out  of  tlie 
£2{xj,fxx).ooo  of  silver  which  have  been  coined  in  I'lance  since 
the  vear  iSoo,  oidv  £40, ocx>. 000  remained  in  the  couiitrv  in  1S69. 
It  is,  however,  calculated  that  the  £ioo,cxxj.(xxj  (A'  iiard  cash, 
;^old  and  silver  to<fether,  which  were  said  to  reallv  belong  to 
France  in  1848,  have  doubled  since:  and  M.  W'olowski.  who  is 
re<^arded  as  an  authority  on  such  (piestions,  declared  in  the  French 
Chamber,  on  4th  February  last,  that,  in  his  opinicjn.  the  national 
stock  now  ran<:jes  between    £20o.ocx),rxDo  ami    £j^o.fxx;.cxxj. 

Hut  whatever  be  the  interest  of  these  computations,  and  useful 
as  it  mav  be  to  count  u[)  the  ;imount  of  bullion  which  has  come 
into  France,  we  must  look  elsewhere  for  information  as  to  the 
(piantity  of  it  which  the  consequences  of  the  war  took  r)ut.  We 
know  that  the  German  mint  melted  down,  for  its  owji  coina<;e, 
£33.880, (XX)  of  French  napoleons.  It  is  also  known,  savs  M. 
Leon  Say,  tiiat  the  liank  of  En<i;lan(l  bought  nearlv  £8,fxx),fxx) 
of  the  same  sort  of  money  between  1870  and  1873.  litre,  there- 
fore, we  can  trace  the  passage  out  of  France,  since  tlie  war,  of 
nearly  £42,cxx),cxx)  of  her  ^old.  liut.  as  (ierniany  drew  froin 
London  £i,68o,o<X)  of  the  na[)ole(jns  which  she  put  iiito  the  fur- 
nace, it  may  be  that  that  sum  was  included  in  the  £.S,oo(j.(xx)  of 
tile  iiank  of  I'^!i<rland,  and  is  therefore  counted  twice.  Vor  this 
reason  the  amount  reallv  sent  to  (lermanv  and  ICiii^land  mav  be 
put  at  £40,000, rxx).  M.  Leon  Say  adds,  that  the  fiank  of' Am- 
sterdam boujjht  a  further  £3,6oo,o(X)  of  French  ^old  ;  but.  as  he 
fancies  that  this  may  not  have  come  direct  from  France,  he  docs 
not  add  it  to  the  total,  and  he  holds  to  £40,00:), cxx)  as  represent- 
ing probably  the  ellective  loss  of  gold  which   France  had  to  sup- 


! 


i;!- 


m 


.'^jp 


ffi^ 


;||! 
i 


254 


SF.I.ECTIONS. 


>tt 


port  after  the  war.  Of  this  siiiu,  i'lo.yzcocx)  were  exported  to 
IJerliii,  as  we  have  aheady  shown,  hy  tlie  I'^reiuh  (joveniineiit 
itself;  (lie  otlier  t'29,oSo,ocxi  were  eoiise(|iieiillv  carried  out  l>v 
jirivate  linns  for  traiisiiiissif)n  to  Merlin,  and  for  various  other 
purposes.  Silver,  however,  arrived  in  considi-rahle  (juanlities  to 
replace  the  j^old.  ,£'9,5(X),o(X)  of  silvt.-r  were  coined  in  I'aris 
between  1S70  and  I'Sy-^  ;  and  the  Custom-house  returns,  which 
are  almost  always  helow  the  truth,  show  an  importation  of 
t'l  J,  160,000  of  it.  From  all  this,  M.  Say  concludes  that 
,i'4o,ooo.ooo  of  ^old  left  France;  that  t'l  i.()cxj,cxx)  of  silver  came 
to  her  ;  and  that  the  €28,ooo,oo(i  of  ditlerence  between  the  two 
represents  the  real  total  loss  of  bullion  which  the  war  entailed. 

Hut  in  makin<;  this  calculati(»n  M.  Leon  Say  commits  a  most 
wonderful  mistake ;  he  entirely  omits  to  take  account  of  the 
.£'9,572,000  of  silver  which  the  French  Government  sent  to  Jk-r- 
lin,  and  which  must,  of  course,  be  added  to  the  outj^oin^.  When 
this  stranj^e  error  is  corrected,  the  loss  bi'comes,  not  t.'2S,(xx),ooo, 
but  t'^S.fxxj.ooo,  of  which  the  (jovernment  exported  t'20.000,- 
000,  —  leavin<4,  apparently,  t'KS,0(X),fK)o,  instead  of  .t'8,000,000. 
as  the  sum  contributed  by  private  bankers.  This  ditlerence  of 
£  io.(X)o,ooo  in  the  issue  of  the  calculation  j^ives  some  value  to 
another  computation  which  M.  Leon  Say  has  made,  but  which 
would  have  had  no  foundation  if  this  error  had  not  existed,  lie 
savs  —  probably  with  some  truth  —  that  the  (|uantitv  of  money  in 
circulation  in  a  country  remains  usually  at  the  same  jjjeneral  total, 
durin<;  the  same  perioil,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  various 
elements  which  compose  it.  He  then  <;oes  on  to  arj^fue  that  as 
the  issue  of  French  bank-notes  was  .£44,000,000  hi<i;her  in  Sep- 
tember, 1S73,  than  in  June,  1S70.  that  increase  ouj^ht  to  approxi- 
mately indicate  the  amount  of  metal  withdrawn  in  the  interval 
from  circulation,  and  replaced  by  notes.  Jiut,  aecordinj^f  to  his 
theory,  that  amount  of  metal  ilid  not  exceed  t.'2iS,cxx5,ooo,  leavinj^ 
an  excess  of  £16,000,000  of  notes,  which  excess  he  explains  by 
sayinjj;  that  it  represents  an  ecpial  sum  in  <;old  which  the  French 
people  had  bidden  away  I  Now,  everybody  knows  that  the  lower 
classes  of  the  French  people  do  hide  money — tlo '' thesaurise," 
as  they  say  ;  but  such  an  explanation  of  the  missinj^  .£16,000,000  is 
so  purely  ima<j;inary  that  it  cannot  merit  any  serious  cretlit.  The 
theory  assumes,  however,  a  very  dilVerent  form  when  the  error  of 
the  £10,000,000  is  corrected.  In  that  case  we  have  an  extra 
issue  of  .£44,000,000  in  bank-notes,  corresponding  to  a  loss  of 


xpoitc'd   to 

oVlTllIlll'Ilt 

c'd  out  by 
ions  otlicM" 
laiititii's  to 
I  ill  I'aiis 
nis,  \\  liicli 
)rtati*Mi  ot" 
Iiidfs  that 
lilvcr  came 
L.M1  the  two 
ciitailctl. 
nits  a  iDost 
mt  of"  the 
ent  to  Ik-r- 
\<^.     When 

!S,(XX),(XXi, 

t' 20,000, - 
'S, 000,000, 
llcience   of 
lie  vahie  to 

hilt  which 

isled.     He 

money  in 

leial  total, 

he  various 


rue 


tliat 


IIS 


:v  ill 


•p- 
pproxi- 
he  interval 


lo  a 


ntr 


to  1 


us 


o,  leaviiiir 


plains  Dy 

lie  French 

the  1 


owcr 


lesiuirise, 
looo.ooo  is 


lit. 


Th( 


|e  error  of 
an  extra 
a  loss  of 


ul'i 


riiK  iKiiNcii  im)f:mmtv. 


255 


£'38,000.000  in  j;old  and  silver;  and  there  the  two  flj;ures  j^'et 
Mitllciently  close  to  each  other  for  it  to  he  possible  that  tliere  really 
is  some  relationship  between  them,  witiiout  bein^  forced  to  resort 
to  the  possible  but  iin])robable  solution  of  thesaurisiii<^. 

Coiise(|uently,  with  all  these  \arious  considerations  before  us, 
it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  natures  of  the  bills  em- 
ployed to  pay  the  war  indemnity  were  of  time  main  classes,  and 
were  <froiiped  approximately   in  the  followinj^  proportions:  — 


Drafts  f'or  fore'u[ii  subscriptions  to  the  loans 
Hills  aj^ainst   I'rench  bullion  specially  exported, 
ComiiHTcial   bills  and  drafts   for  dividends  and 
revenues  tVoiii  abioad     ..... 

General  total  of  bills  ..... 


£70,920,000 
i«S,cxx),(X)o 

Si  .03 2. 000 


Before  we  proceed  to  sum  up  the  case,  and  to  tr\  to  draw  from 
it  the  teaching  it  contains,  there  is  one  more  detail  which  is  worth 
explainiiiL;". 

We  ha\e  alluded  to  the  coinin;^  in  Paris  of  a  certain  (|uantitv 
of  llamlniri^  silver.  To  make  the  stor\  of  it  clear,  it  is  necessarv 
to  remind  our  readers  that,  accordin;^'  to  the  constitution  ot  the 
IJanU  of  Ilambuii;,  —  which  dates  iKtm  iC)!^,  —  accounts  were 
kept  b\  it  in  a  nioiiev  called  marc-banco,  and  credits  were  opened 
hv  it  in  that  monev  on  the  ileposit  of  silver,  — coined  or  uncoined, 
—  the  value  of  that  silver  beint^  calculated  pure.      I>v  dej^ieesthe 

;irc-banco,   thou<j;h   on!\  an   imaLjiuar\    monev.   <;iew   to  be  the 


111 


universal  denominator  emploved  m  tiie  home  and  loieii^ni  business 
of  Hamburg'" ;  it  actiuired  an  importance  ;j;reater  than  that  of  the 
etVectixe  money  ol  many  ( lermau  states.  JUit  when  the  Empire 
was  established,  aiui  it  was  decided  to  introduce  a  ^olil  staiulard 
into  (iermanv,  it  became  essential  to  su[)piess  the  marc-banco, 
i'or  it  had  the  double  (Ul'ect  of  representing  silver  and  of  lbrmiii<; 
a  separate  value  out-^ide  (leiinan  monetary  unitN.  So  it  was 
abolished  bv  law  and  ordered  to  disappear,  —  the  plan  a(lo|)ted 
bein<i;  that  tlie  lianU  of  Ilamburi;  sliouUl  licjuidate  its  deposits  by 
])ayiii^  otr,  in  pure  siher.  the  mai"cs-i)anco  in  circulation.  It 
was,  however,  sti[nilateil  that  this  ri;j^ht  should  cease  on  15th 
February,  JS73,  and  that,  after  that  day,  all  persons  who  held 
securities  in   marcs-banco  should  lose  the  old  rijilit  of  receivin}; 


I 


1: 

f 

j; 

^ 

( 

1 

i 

! 

T 


■m 

1 

256 


SF.I.KC'no.NS. 


pure  silver,  and  should  onlv  lie  entitled  to  half  a  thaler  fur  each 
niarehaneo.  that  heiiij^  the  \ahie  ol"  the  silvei'  represented  by  the 
latter.  Now,  the  French  'Piiasnry  had  hoiij^ht,  as  we  have  seen. 
L'j  I  .fKKj.fKM)  of  hills  in  inarcs-haneo,  and,  conseipiently.  possessed 
the  rii^lit  rit'  elainiinif  silver  for  snch  of  them  as  fell  due  before 
15th  I'eiirr.ary,  i'">73,  while  all  the  rest,  iVom  that  date,  wi-ie  ])ay- 
ahle  in  thalers.  The  thaler  was  "  liherativ  e,"  while  the  niarc- 
haneo  was  not  ;  hut  the  pure  siher  which  the  niaic-haneo  repre- 
sented could  hi'  coined  into  li\e-lranc  pieces,  and  he  delivered  to 
the  (ierinan  (iovernuieiit  at  the  rate  of  t,  iVancs  75  centimes  per 
thaler.  The  residt  was,  that  hein;^  hy  tar  the  lari^est  holder  oi' 
marcs-hanco  paper,  the  I'reiich  Trt'asury  was  able  for  a  time  t(< 
control  the  IlamburL;'  market,  and  it  naturallv  used  {'or  its  own 
ad\  ,uita,L,a'  the  povvei'  which  this  position  j^ave  it.  The  Hamburg 
IJanU  was  utterlv  unable  to  delivi-i'  the  (juantitv  ol' silver  for  which 
r'lauce  lield  acceptances  in  marcs-banco;  it  was  absolutelv  in  the 
hands  of  tlu-  I'rench  Minister  of  I'iuaiice  :  that  lunctionary  ap- 
pears, however,  to  have  acted  verv  fairlv,  —  to  have  onlv  asked 
for  silver  in  moileration,  and  to  have  profited  bv  his  jjovver  solely 
to  obtain  conveisions  into  tiialers  on  ^ood  conditions.  The  result 
was,  as  we  have  said,  that  L'^.732,(X)0  of  IIambur<j;  silver  canu- 
to  the  I'aris  mint,  partly  throui^'h  (lovernment  importations  on 
marcs-banco  bills,  partly  throuLjh  private  speculators.  wliofoUowed 
the  example  of  the  Trea.surv,  and  pressed  the  Ilambnr<4  \>A\\k  tor 
metal. 

Such  are.  in  a  condensed  form,  the  csseuiial  I'eatuivs  of  the 
historv  of  this  extraordinary  operation  ;  and  now  tiiat  we  have 
completed  the  account,  we  need  no  louLjer  delav  the  expression  of 
our  adniiiation  of  the  consummate  ability  with  vvhicli  it  was  con- 
ducted. Its  success  may  be  said  to  have  been,  in  every  point, 
coniplete  :  we  cannot  detect  one  si;_,M\  of  a  j^iave  hitch  or  of  a 
serious  error  in  it.  It  docs  the  hijjjhest  honor  to  the  ollicials  of 
the  l-'iench  'J'reasurv,  and  proves  that  they  ])ossess  a  jierfect 
knowledge  of  exchan<;"e  and  banking:;,  both  in  their  minutest  ile- 
tails  and  in  their  Iar<^est  applications. 

When  we  look  back  upon  the  subject  as  a  whole,  three  great 
facts  strike  us  in  it.  The  first,  that  France  is  vastly  rich  ;  the 
second,  that  tlie  trade  of  ICurope  has  attained  such  a  magnitude 
that  figures  aie  ceasing  iu  convey  its  measure;  the  third,  that  the 
aggregate  commercial  action  of  nations  is  a  lever  which  can  lift 
any  financial  load  whatever.     As  we  see  the  transaction  now. 


^  I- 


Till-:  rKi;\cn  i\i)i:M.\nv 


257 


1 '. 

)   ! 


•r  for  each 
itcd  I)v  tin- 

lia\e  scfn, 
',  possc'ssi'd 
due    hftoif 

Wire  pay- 

tlic  inarc- 
tico  ii-pif- 
tliMTed  to 
ntiiiK's  pi'i 
[  holder  (jf 

a  liiiic  t(* 
or  it^  own 
.'  I  Iainlnir<^ 
r  for  which 
itelv  in  the 
ionary  ap- 
oiily  asked 
)wer  S(jlelv 

Tlie  resnh 
ilver  came 
rtatioiis  on 

)tollowed 
Uaidv  for 

res   of  the 
we    have 

)ression  ot 
was  con- 

'V\  point. 
1   or  ot   a 

itlicials  ol" 
a    jierfect 

nntest  de- 

lee  great 
rich  ;  the 
iiaj^nitude 

.  thattlie 
1  can  lilt 
ion  now. 


with  these  explanations  ol'  its  composition  before  ns.  we  cannot 
fail  to  reco'^ni/e  tiiat  it  has  been  rather  lunopi'an  than  piuely 
French.  All  purses  helped  to  pro\  ide  I'unds  for  it  ;  all  trades 
supplied  hills  |")|-  it.  In  e\er\'  previous  stale  of  the  world's  com- 
merce such  an  operation  would  ha \  e  liei-n  impossjjilf  ;  lil"t\',  thirty, 
twenty  \ears  a^o.  it  would  liavi-  luiui-il  I'lance  and  hasedisor- 
di'red  ICuropi' ;  iu  oiu'  time  it  has  come  and  t^oiii' w  ithout  seriously 
disturhinj;  anv  of  the  I'conomic  conditions  un<ki'  which  \s  e  livt.-. 
France,  out  of  her  own  stores,  has  (piietK  tran^poi  ted  to  Uerlin  a 
(|uantity  ol  bullion  lar^ei-  than  the  whole  onliuars'  stock  of  the 
Hank  of  ICn;^dand  ;  and  \et  she  shows  no  si^^n  ,,\'  h;ivin'4  lost  a 
soverei;4u.  J~>lii'  has  paid,  iu  her  baid\-noU\s,  for  L"  1 -().()()().()<x)  of 
transmission  paper,  and  wt  the  cpiantity  of  her  bank-noir>  in  cir- 
culation is  now  steadils'  diminishing'.  Such  realllit's  ;is  these 
would  be  alto|4ether  inconcei\  able  if  we  did  not  see  their  cause 
behind  them:  that  cause  is  simple,  nalur.d,  indisputable;  its 
name  is  [\\c  presiiit  situation  of  the  wcnld's  trade.  '\'\\v  \aslncss 
of  that  tri(K'  explains  the  m\st(.'r\, 

liut  vet.  w  itii  tlu'se  advauta^'es  to  help  it.  the  optiation  had.  in 
addition  to  its  enoinious  si/e.  certain  special  ditlicullies  lo  eon- 
tend  with.  ^\s  one  example  it  ma\  be  mentioned  that,  amoni^st 
the  elements  of  perturbation  and  of  conse(pient  impediments  to 
remittance,  the  I'li-nch  (iovermnent  had  to  keep  in  \  iew  the  fact 
that,  at  the  \ei\  moment  when  it  needed  all  the  monelai\  facili- 
ties it  could  oi)taiu,  tlie  (ierman  tio\ermnenl  was  locking  up  i^old 
in  its  cellars,  in  ordv'r  to  provide  metal  foi' thi.'  new  coinage  it  was 
preparing'.  This  wasamost  unluck\  coincidence;  but  it  existed, 
and  it  had  to  '  Met.  The  (ierman  plan  was  to  hold  back  the 
issue  of  till'  moiiev  until    t'^().(X)().()<x)  of  it  were  reads   to  lie 

exchanj^et'  the   old    siber   curieiicx  ;   conseipuulK  .  no    si|\i'r 

could  be  (.'  -icd  to  leave  (»erman\-  until  some  moiitlis  alter  the 
date  at  which  the  j^old  had  bi-eu  brought  iu  tlien.' ;  and.  duiiii'^ 
the  interval,  I'lance  knew  that  sjic  nuist  sullir  tVoui  the  wilh- 
draw.al  of  so  much  bidlion  from  the  ueneial  market.  Ihit  shf 
found  assistance  in  an  unexpected  wa\  ;  sibir  did  tlow 
back  to  her  at  once  fioui  (ieinianv,  without  waitin;^  for  the  issue 
of  the  new  ;4old  cuinaicv.  1" ranee  paid  (ierniaiiv  Ci)o7-.<«><)  in 
French  sib  i-r  ;  but  this  was  of  no  use  to  the  latter;  on  the  coiiti  ar\ . 
it  was  an  embarrassment  t  >  her;  for  she  was  on  the  point  of  ex- 
porting a  t|U.intity  of  her  own  silver,  which  would  become 
siHJertUious  as  soon  as  the  new  gold  got  inli;  circulation.     .So,  for 


1^ 


!  i 


I 


2;S 


SF.I.F.CTIONS. 


this  iviisoi),  :i  considcMiililc  portion  of  the  I'tciu'li  fivc-lVanc  pii-ci-s 
came  hack  iiniiiciliatcly  to  Kiancc,  ami  helped  to  reconstitute  her 
store. 

AikI  all  the  otlicr  dillKiilties  were,  inoie  or  li-ss,  like  this  one. 
At  lirst  si^-jlit  tiu'V  htoki'd  j^ra\e  and  (hiral)le,  hut  they  diminished 
"or  disappeared  as  soon  as  thev  were  si-riously  attacked  ;  the  whole 
tiling  tmtu'd  out  to  l)e  an  astonisiiinj;  example  of  ol»statles  over- 
rated. The  unsuspected  wealth  of  France,  assisted  hy  an  extent 
of  i^eneral  conimercial  dealings  wiiich  was  more  unsuspected 
still,  manau^i'd  to  pjet  the  hetter  of  all  the  stumhlin^-hlocks  and 
ir\)|)ossil)iIities  which  seemed  to  har  the  roail.  l"'rance  has  lost 
t'.|(X),(M)().o<xj,  one-half  of  wliich  she  has  delivered  to  her  enemy, 
and  yet  she  is  <^oiii<j[  on  prosperinjf  maleri.dly  as  if  nothing  at  all 
had  happeiu'd.  Hut  it  is  now  (juite  clear  that  she  never  could 
have  mana;^fed  all  this  alone;  she  could  ha\e  found  the  money,  hut 
never  could  slie.  sinjjfk'-handed,  have  carried  it  tt>  (Jermany.  It 
is  there,  far  more  than  in  subscriptions  to  her  loans,  that  tlie 
worlil  has  ri-ally  helped  her;  she  has  hou^ht  l)ack  the  stock  that 
loreijj^nei  s  suhscrihed  lor  her,  hut  she  could  not  do  so  without 
the  hills  they  sold  her.  If  she  had  been  left  to  her  own  resources 
for  the  transport  of  the  indemnity  to  IJerlin,  she  would  pr<»hal)ly 
have  het'u  forced  t';  send  two-thirds  of  it  in  hullion,  and  to  emptv 
her  people's  pockets  for  the  jimpose  ;  the  vastness  of  the  world's 
trade  and  the  unitv  of  interests  which  conmu-rce  has  produced, 
permitted  her  to  use  other  nations'  me;ms  of  action  instc-atl  of  her 
own. 

Viewed  in  this  li^ht,  the  payment  of  the  live  milliards  becomes 
an  enornidus  piece  of  admirably  well-arranged  international 
b;mkin^,  in  wliich  nearly  all  the  countinf^-hoiises  of  Northern 
ICmope  took  a  siiare.  That  delinition  of  it  is  worth  knowing, 
and  we  mav  be  ,iL;lad  tlnit  tiie  information  ^iveii  in  M.  .Sav's  report 
has  enabled  us  to  arrive  at  it. 


I 


TIIK    FkK.NCII    INDI MMIV 


'59 


itiliitc  her 

tills  owe. 
imiiiislKMl 
the  whole 
itlcs  ovcr- 

an  t'xtcnt 
isiispccti'd 
)l(>cks  aiul 
:c  hiis  lost 
or  oiicniv, 
hiii^'  at  all 
ever  foiihi 
noMcy,  l)iit 
iuan_v.  It 
i,  that  tlu- 

stock  that 
;(>  without 
1  resources 

1  prohahly 

1  to  empty 
he  world's 

produoetl, 

•ad  of  her 

Is  bocoiucs 

leiiiatioual 

Northeiii 

Iknowiuu, 


Iv  s  repo 


It 


A/'/'L/CAT/O.V  or   THE   ISDh  MS'ITY. 
I'KdM  Koi.u's  Tin;  Conditkin  ok  Nations  iTkw^.  ),  vv.  i</>  ny). 

When  the  North  (Jermaii  Confederacy  was  fonned,  iiotwith- 
staiidh)}^  the  transfer  of  the  proceeds  of  the  customs  and  of  other 
indirect  im|)nsts  to  the  C'onfi-deracv.  and  in  spite  of  considerahlo 
contrilnitions  hv  tlu-  (hireient  Slates,  the  revemies  did  not  suirue 
to  cover  the  expeiulituii-,  cspecialK  that  of  the  estaidishment  ol"  a 
lai<;er  sea  force.  A  deficit  was  the  result,  ami  loans  hail  to  l)c 
raised. 

In  the  year  iS6S  the  deht  of  the  Confederacy  amounted 

to         ........          .  .t'54"»*^^>*> 

In  iS6yt().         ........  i.^ij.^^S 

And  in  1870  it  rose  to          .....          .  i<7.Vv7).i 

While  in  1871    it  was           ......  i,f)S8,S82 

I'he  war  made  the  contraction  of  a  furthi-r  ileht  unavoidahle, 
hoth  for  the  Slates  of  the  .North  (ierman  Conledeiacv  as  wel'  as 
for  those  of  South  (lermany.  The  sum  immediately  expended 
on  the  war  must  have  amounted  to  ahont  ,£5 1  ,cxk),cxx).  The 
result  of  the  war  led  to  a  complete  revolution  in  the  condition  of 
fniance.  We  extract  the  loUowin^  data  from  the  memorandum, 
w  hich  was  laid  heforc  the  Diet  hy  the  Im|)erial  Chancellor  on 
I'ehruary  18,  187.1,  with  regard  to  the  application  of  the  l-'rench 
war  c(*ntril)ution  :  — 

The  Receipts  amoimtcd  to  — 


I.   War  contrihutioti  hy  France    .  .  .  . 

1,   Interest  upon  this  till  the  payment  of  the  del)t. 

Total         ....... 

_^.  Added  to  this,  contrilnition  of  the  City  ol' 
Paris    ........ 

4.  Customs  levied  in  Fr.ance  and  local  contrihu- 
tions,  less  cost  of  collection,  so  far  as  these 
sums  were  not  employed  for  special  military 
purposes,  about    ...... 

Total  receipts   ...... 


.t'200,00(),(X)0 

12,0.17,678 
JL'j  1 2,0-17,678 

8,025,879 

2,609,133 
£222,682,690 


"j^ 'Ml 

ill  it" : 


1*1  •' 


260 


SELECTIONS, 


Of  this  sum,  JCi  2,999,999  must  l)e  tlciluctod  for  the  acquisition 
of  railways  l)cloii<iin<if  to  a  private  company  in  Alsace-Lorraine, 
the  rcm.'iiulcr  being,  tliercforc,  .£209,682,691. 

Expenditu  res. 

1st.  Expenses  for  which  hxecl  sums  were  granted  by  Imperial 
decrees,  viz.  :  — 


For  the  Imperial  Invalid  Fund         .... 

For  the  com])letion  of  German  'ortresses 

For  fortresses  in  Alsace-Lorrawie     .... 

For  railroa<ls  in  the  Imperial  Dominions,  particularly 
the  Willu'lm-Liixemliourg  line 

For  Imperial  war  treasures,  to  be  kept  in  the  Julius 
tower  of  the  fortress  of  Spandau 

Compensation  for  the  decrease  in  the  revenue  caused 
bv  alteiatitiiih  in  the  management  of  the  customs 
and  taxes  ....... 

Imperial  Treasury  fund,  for  the  administration  of 
the  marine,  and  for  umedeemable  advances  for 
the  management  of  the  Iiuperial  army 

For  giatuities  to  generals  tor  distinguished  services. 

For  aid  to  (Jermans  banished  from  France 

For  exercise  ground  for  the  Artillery-triai  Commis- 
sion ........ 

Expenditure  for  general  purposes  defrayed  by  the 
Imperial  Treasury  in  1870  and  1871 ,  and  the  ad- 
ditional outlay  for  troops  gtnrisoned  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine  till  the  end  of  1S72    .... 


£28,050,000 

10,800,000 

6,037,6.12 

8,210.883 

6,000,000 


2,968.905 


1,503,000 
6(X),ooo 
300,000 

206,250 


1,249,500 


'!i 


Lastly.  £6,195.181  granted  by  an  Imperial  decree  of  July  8. 
S873.  For  marine,  £4,206,783.  Buildings  for  the  Diet,  £1,200, - 
<xx).  Supplemental  expenses  of  war,  including  various  other 
grants,  making  total  of  £72,1 16,704. 

To  this  nuist  be  added  those  outlays,  the  amount  of  which  ik- 
pends  on  the  sum  reipiired  for  the  attainment  of  tlie  object  in 
view.     They  may  be  estimated  as  follows  :  — 


\ 


a.  Compensation  for  damages  by  war  and  for  war  .     £5,655.o(xj 
2.  Compensation  to  German  ship-owners        .  .  84o,o<xi 


1^ ' 


THE    FRENCH    INDEMNITV 


261 


3.  For  war  medals  ......  .C45,cx)o 

4.  Invalid   pensions   in  conse(iuence  of  the   war  of 

iSyo,  i87r,  and  i8'/2         .....         1,513.466 

5.  Additional  for  i)Mvincnt  of  invalid  pensions,  pay- 

able out  of  the  Imperial  Invaliil  Fund  durinj^ 
the  time  that  that  fund  was  not  perfectly  estab- 
lished        ........  897, (KK) 

6.  War  expenses  connected  with  the  French  War  costs  indemni- 

fication, which,  accordin<^  to  Art.  5  of  the  decree  of  July  8, 
1872,  are  to  be  treated  as  conmion  char<;es,  vi/.  :  — 


1 


(a)   For  arminj^  and  disarming  of  tortresses 

(6)    For  siej^e  material  ..... 

(c)    For  marine  administration     .... 

((/)  F<»r  temporary  arranj^ements  for  coast  de- 
fence, etc.  ...... 

(r)  I'or  laviii<^  down  and  repair\n<^  railroads,  etc., 
necessary  for  prosectitioif  the  war 

(_/")  I'\)r  the  establishment  and  w(;rkin<;  of  tele- 
graphs outside  the  limit  of  the  tele<j;raph 
system       ....... 

{£")  For  temporary  civil  administration  iu  France, 
especially  for  manaj^ement  if  railways  in 
Alsace-Lorraine,  till   the  end  of  1871 


£1,. 177,078 
1 .409,223 
1,402,876 

148,121 

7 1 S. 797 

30,418 


Further  tbi  services  which  from  Jidy  u  1871,  w"re  in  conneLtion 
with  the  war,  viz. :  — 

(//)   Mana<j;ement  of  the  post       ....  £33,750 

(/)    Mana<^ement  of  tele<;raph»  ....  88,500 

(/')  Increased  expenditure  in  li»e  manajjfcment  (^f 
the  army,  over  and  abovt  tliat  in  time  of 
peace,  cotisequent  upon  tlie  occu[)ati(>n  of 
French  territory  .....         3, i50,cxK> 

(/)   Furtiier  estimates  for  <i;eneral  expenses  to  be 

defrayed  by  the  Imperial  'L'reasury,  about,  37,5(x> 


The  total  amount  of  expenditure  fund  to  Ix;  deducted  fron»  the 
revenue  amounts  therefore  to  £90,125,54.4,  leavinj^  a  remainder 
of  £i  19,057,197  to  be  divided,      it  is,  however,  desirable  to  retain 


i 


i 

Is  I 


262 


SELECTIONS. 


a  innderate  reserve  for  possible  deficiencies  in  the  estimated  rc- 
cei[)ts,  in  expectation  of  j^reater  requirements  in  the  expenditure. 
Tile  sum  to  be  divided  may,  therefore,  be  estimated  in  roinid 
numl)ers  at  £1  i8,900,cxx).  Tiiree-fourths  of  this  were,  in  accord- 
ance with  Article  6  of  the  Statute  of  the  8th  of  July,  1S73,  set 
apart  for  military  purposes,  in  the  proportion  specilied  in  the 
above  Article  6,  and  one-fourth  to  be  ilivided  according  to  a  flxetl 
standard  of  1871.     The  sum  for  division  is  shared  as  follows  :  — 


■i  ilk"' 

4n 


I.  IJavaria      .... 

3.  VViirtemburji^ 

3.  North  German  Confederation 

4.  leaden         .... 
4.  Ilesse  .... 

For  the  payment  of  expenses  . 


.    £113,380.061 
4,275,130 

•      7<>5i7'4«7 
5,019,977 

1,400,051 

(      917,850 

(  16,289,521 


About  ,£23,500,000  of  the  entire  war  contribution  were,  in 
obedience  to  Imperial  decrees,  applied  to  civil  objects,  the  rest  for 
purposes  of  war.  The  suiris  vvhicli  fell  to  the  sejjarate  States  in 
the  division  were  also  mostly  expended  in  defrayinjif  the  costs 
of  war,  and  the  repayment  of  loans  for  war. 

Accorilinjf  to  the  vStalute  of  2d  of  July,  1873,  .£16,027,021  of 
the  sum  to  be  divided  were  set  apart  for  restoring  the  army  to  a 
war-footinjif  and  increasing  its  general  efficiency. 

We   lind  fiom  a  report  of  tlie  Ct)mmission  on  the  State  Debt, 
under  date  April,  187  |.  that  tlie  Imperial  Invalid  Fund  possessed 
paper  of  nominal  value  in  thalers   ....    JL'23,081.742 

In  South  (ierman  guldens        .....  933' '^7 

In  Dutch  guldens    .......  213,333 

In  English  £  sterling      ......  (>'8,76o 

In  dollars        ........         3,556,8cx) 

And  in  banks  .......  393 


' 


The  fortress  building  fund  possessed  at  the  same  time  a  nominal 
value  of  .£5,229.795  in  effects,  and  a  capital  of  £2,789,913  in  the 
Prussian  bank. 


:i 


nated  rc- 
teiuliturc. 
ill  loiiiul 
11  acconl- 
1S73,  set 
h1  in  the 
to  a  fixed 
lows  :  — 

3.380,061 

4^275,130 

9vS«7'4o7 
5,019,977 

1 ,400,05 1 

917,850 

6,289,521 

I  were,  in 

he  rest  for 
States  in 
the  costs 

27,021  of 
army  to  a 

ate  Debt, 
possessed 
13,081.742 

2I3'333 
(('8,760 

[3,556,800 
393 

la  nominal 
113  in  the 


rnK    Ri:CENT    I'UOCiRESS   UK    I'lAI.Y. 


.163 


XIII. 


TIIK    RECKNT    PROGRESS    OP^    ITALY. 

From  Wilson's  Thic  Rksoitrcks  of  Modern  Countries, 
Vol.  11.,  Chap.  IX. 

TiiK  rapidity  with  which  the  new  Italian  kiii<^dom  has  <i;rowii 
out  of  a  conj^eries  <A'  petty  States  and  subject  Provinces  is  a  <;oo(i 
augury  for  its  future.  Unless  we  must  vet  look  forward  tf)  a 
time  of  social  revolutions,  —  to  struggles  between  priestcraft  and 
popular  liberties,  —  of  which  there  are  at  present  few  seiioiislv 
disturbing  signs,  there  is  little  to  hinder  modern  Italy  from  ad- 
vancing to  the  positi(jn  of  one  of  the  most  tliri\ing  nations  of  the 
Old  World. 


Then 


e  IS,  indeed,  sometliing  very  attractive  m  tlie  progress 
which  Italy  is  making.  It  is  a  progress  dashed  with  errors,  and 
not  without  dangers,  of  course;  but  it  has  for  all  that  beiii  great 
and  admirable.  We  have  but  to  glance  for  a  moment  at  the 
picture  which  the  dismembered  kingdom  presented  betore  she 
began  to  stir  for  her  freedom  in  184S.  The  lirst  stirrings  were  in- 
deed earlier  than  that  :  for  Italy,  bound  hand  and  foot  at  the  t'eet 
of  Austria,  as  she  was  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  wiiicli  restored 
and  solaced  exiled  and  etl'ete  dynasties  in  all  Western  and  Cen- 
tral Europe,  —  Italy  never  quite  forgot  the  liberal  ideas  which  the 
republican  armies  of  the  voiing  citi/cn  Hona|)arte  had  carried 
with  them  out  of  France.  The  dull  brutal  rule  of  Austria  in 
Venetia  and  Lombardy,  and  tlie  more  than  Asiatic  nilhlessness 
of  the  Hourbons  of  Naples,  gave  the  Italians  small  chance  tu  lot- 
get  their  dreams  of  a  bright  deliverance.  Accordingly,  tlxre  li:i<l 
been  risings  before  1848;  and,  besides  the  risings,  many  an  ell'ort 
to  [)ersuade  the  people  to  stand  up  like  men  for  their  lights,  that 
had  seemingly  led  to  nothing.  Hut  it  was  not  till  184S  (hat  Italy 
could  be  said  seriously  to  bend  herself  to  the  task  of  wrenching 
her  shackles  ofV.  That  year  sent  a  »(uiver  of  dread  through  the 
heart  of  every  king  and  kinglet  in  Europe.  Again  the  impulse 
came   from    France,  that  country  so  full   of  striking    ideals  in   its 


u. 


m 


i&  h 


m 


',. 


264 


SELECTIONS. 


moiliTii  political  history,  —  ideals  wliich  liavc  been  made  the 
pri'tc-xt  of"  tii'mc'iidous  criincs  ;  l)iit  (lisnienihcrcd  Italy  could  have 
iiiatic  no  headway  at  all  aj^aiiist  cither  noiirhoi)  or  Ilapshui}^, 
except  tor  the  resolution  of  Charles  Albert,  the  Kin<j  of"  Sanlinia, 
to  bicoine  the  champion  ot'  national  unity  and  in(le|)endencc. 
The  new  tijeneration  ot"  to-day  t'or;^ets  these  thin«j^s  ;  but  iniddlc- 
ai^ed  men  retneniber  the  excitement,  the  hopes,  at  lirst  even 
stimulated  by  the  soNeieij^ii  I'ontiM",  destined  to  so  cruel  a 
disappointment.  Italy  was  beati-n  back  apparently  into  slavery, 
in  this  her  lirst  <;rand  ilash  for  freedom,  and  the  dreams  of 
Ma//,ini  and  C'avour  sei-nud  to  be  ^one  us  dreams  all  <^o.  The 
weak-kneed  I'ope  had  turned  traitor  to  the  nation,  in  his  <^reed  of 
teujporal  asceu'leiuy,  and  had  j^iven  it  his  curse.  I'owers  t(K) 
stion'4  for  them  were  aiiaved  a<>ainst  the  people,  the  Sardinian 
ainiies  were  defeated,  and  Italv  seemed  by  iS^^o  to  have  lost 
ever\  tiling.  it  was  not,  however,  so  to  be.  The  defeat  lijave  a 
kei'uiKss  to  the  national  feelin<j  all  over  the  land,  such  as  it  had 
not  attained  to  befnu.  Neapolitan  and  Lombard  be<j^an  to  reco}^- 
ni/e  themscKes  as  men  of  the  same  nationalilv.  The  repiession 
of  the  Ibreii^ners  had  thus  to  do  its  final  work  in  welding  the 
nation,  and  the  coiKpierors  eiuleavored  to  do  it  effectually,  to  their 
own  ultimate  overthrow. 

Louis  Napoleon  also  did  something,  no  doubt,  f"or  the  libera- 
tion of  Italy,  in  a  ^ranifiosc.  histrionic,  morally  contemptible 
way,  urjfcil  as  he  was  by  the  necessity  of  justifyinji;  his  rather 
despicable  existence  in  the  eyes  of  France  ;  but,  whether  he  had 
interfered  or  not,  the  power  of  Austria  was  destined  to  fall  before 
the  risiiiir  forces  of  Prussia,  and  with  it  that  of  the  Bourbons  t)f 
vSicily,  Naples,  and  Tuscany,  most  corrupt  of  all  tiic  corrupt 
creatures  whom  lMi<;laiid  had  prop|)e(l  up  aj:fain  for  a  brief  space, 
to  play  the  part  of  tyrants  and  oppressors  in  mundane  allair.-..  It 
is  not  mv  jnupose  to  follow  the  hisiory  of  the  Itali;.'n  struj^jfle  foi 
independence,  ihroujjfh  its  Napoleonic  and  other  phases  ;  sutlice 
it  that  we  call  to  mintl  some  of  the  cardinal  facts.  Ik't"ore  1S4S 
Italv,  all  exce|it  Piedmont,  seemed  iiopelessly  crushed.  Austria, 
the  l*o])e,and  the  Hourbons  held  hi*/ in  their  j;rasp.  I'^vcn  tlie  com- 
paratively native  sovereijjjn  of  Tuscany  had  turned  oppressor,  and 
all  Italv  <;roaned  like  a  man  in  the  <j;rasp  of  the  tortiuer.  Com- 
merce languished,  divergent  fiscal  laws  muI  a*  Mtrary  rai»ls  on 
pi  ivate  wealth  choked  u|)  the  chaimels  ot  intercourse  Ix'tween 
oni'  p.trl  of'  the  kingdom  and  another;  without  shipping,  without 


i 


'IILK    KKCKNT    I'RodKKSS    ()!■    IIAIW 


265 


made  tlie 
Duld  linve 

Sardinia, 
)c'udc'nce. 
t  middle- 
first  even 
>    cruel    a 

0  slavery, 
ilieams  of 
^o.  The 
s  j^reed  of 
'owers  t(Jo 
Sardinian 
have  lost 
•at   tjjave  a 

1  as  it  had 
1  to  reco}?- 
repression 
uldiiij,'  the 
y,  to  their 

the  lihera- 

itcmptihle 

is  rather 

r  he  hail 

all  before 

urhons  of 

le  corrupt 

icf  space. 

Hair.-,.      It 

iij^^le  foi 

s  ;  siilHce 

fore  1S48 

Austria, 

1  liie  com- 

ssor,  and 

r.     Coir.- 

raivls   on 

not  ween 

',  without 


manufacturers  or  foreign  trade  of  a  solid  kind,  possessed  of  no 
political  security,  Italy  \v:is,  tliirty  vears  a^o,  more  insignificant 
in  the  e\cs  of  neii^hhorin;^  nations  than  (ireece  or  Spain  is  now. 
Mut,  once  frei',  her  consolidation  was  almost  as  rapid  as  that  ot 
the  still  newer  (ii-rman  l'^n])ire  ;  and  to-dav  llal\  is  a  power  to  he 
leckoned  w  ith  in  liie  councils  of  nations,  and  possesses  a  trade  that 
lie<fins  to  he  a  distinct  element  in  I'2uropean  prosperity,  —  a  trade 
that  we  in  lCu;^laiid  cannot  too  carefully  <^ivi'  heed  to.  'I'he  hitter 
i)ouda;4e  which  the  conntrs  has  lon;^  lain  undiT  has  endeil  in 
makin;4  its  mixed  population,  in  a  hopetid  decree,  a  nation  ;  and, 
prudently  ruled,  new  Italy  may  yet  have  a  remarkable  career 
hetbre  it. 

Naturally  enouLjh,  all  this  proj^ress  has  not  been  made  without 
;j;reat  cost,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  look  at  both  sidts  of  thi'  picture  ; 
nor  shoidd  the  political  and  commercial  success  iilind  us  to  the 
iact  that  the  voim^  kin<^dotn  is  not  free  from  sii  ions  economic 
and  social  (l;:n<^eis  on  nioie  sides  than  one.  The  \er\  transition 
from  a  collection  of  pitt\  Statis  to  a  siii^^K'  powi-r  eiitaileil  enor- 
mous waste  of  resources  and  almost  irremediable  administrative 
contusion.  Jealousits  were  also  euLjeiK' .'it-d  bctwreii  province 
and  jMovince,  which  it  will  take  some  time  to  heal  ;  so  that  this 
transition  stajj;e  camiot  by  an\  means  be  considered  at  an  eml  in 
Italy.  Nor  need  we  wonder  when  we  remember  that  it  is  barely 
seven  y<'ars  aj^o  since  the  crowning  act  of  Italian  iniity  was  per- 
Ibrmed,  and  Victor  ILmmanuel  entered  Koine  as  Kin^ofall  Italy, 
to  the  dit^ust  of  I'io  Xoiio  and  the  corrupt  creatures  around 
him. 

I  must  leave  the  historical  pan  of  the  subject.  howe\er,  and 
trace  some  of  the  l?"  incial  characteristics  of  this  period  of  tran- 
sition, before  examiMiuj;  the  Irailin;^  capacity  and  mercantile 
development  which  Italy  exhibits.  These  liiKUicial  characteristics 
are  a<jain  so  intimately  bouiii'  up  with  the  administrative  machin- 
ery of  the  .State,  that  in  noticing  the  one  we  nuist  notice  the 
other.  Indei'd,  the  fust  things  that  strike  the  obseivei'  are  tiie 
concurrent  facts  that  the  {^overiuuent  of  Italy  has,  iiuon„d'  <ut, 
l)een  impecunious,  and,  throu;4hout,  comparative  I''  eble  .id  ii  les- 
olute,  while  yit  the  nation  has  j^iown  and  cousilidati-d.  No 
statesman  has  succeedcil  to  the  seat  of  Count  '  .no  ir;  and,  either 
because  the  men  were  feebler,  or  because  the  constitutional 
powers,  donned  suddeidy  like  a  i^arm.-nt,  fitted  but  ill,  the  reme- 
dial   measuf.s  which   society  and   the   State  retpiired  on  all    hands 


i^ 


w 


•h 


266 


SKI.KCTK^NS. 


lijivc  hvvn  but  tcntativi-ly  and  tardily  applied,  amid  not  a  littk'  hiin*,'- 
liM«,'.  The  new  kinj^'doni  succeeded  to  all  llie  debts  of  the  petty 
States  it  absoilnd,  and  it  also  succeeded  to  t!»i'ir  corrupt  adminis- 
trations. The  debts  made  a  most  serious  buid».!i  to  be<^:n  with  ; 
and,  when  added  to  the  cost  of  the  wai  s  of  independence,  so  handi- 
capped Italy  tliat  few  people  would  have  been  surprised  if  she 
had  pulled  up  short  and  proclaimed  herself  bankrnjjt.  In  a  most 
valuable  repoit  on  the  iinancial  system  of  tlie  kiui^dom,  recently 
made  to  our  fbreiij;n  ollice  by  Mr.  llerries,  Lejj^ation  .Secretarv  at 
Rome,'  we  are  enabled  to  trace  verv  clearly  tin-  st.ij^es  of  this 
financial  maladv  ;  and  manv  of  the  statements  I  shall  make  here 
will  be  drawn  from  this  source,  (^uotin;^  Mr.  l*asini,for  instance, 
he  gives  the  total  debt  of  the  petty  States  of  Italy,  just  bi  lore 
the  consolidation  of  the  kingdom  in  iS^i,  at  l'(>t).o()(),(xx).  or 
2,241 ,270, <K)()  lira.-  The  cUbt  was  giowing  rapidly  tlu-n.  as  the 
expenditure  in  all  cases  exceeded  the  income;  nut.  alter  the  ni'W 
kingdom  was  fairly  started,  the  deficits  grew  woise  and  worse. 
In  the  words  of  Mr.  I'asini  it  is  stated  that  during  this  disastrous 
period  the  recei])ts  were  diminished  by  t'l  ,2X0, (kk),  while  the 
expenditure  was  increased  by  t"2,2S().(XK)  and  the  public  debt  i)y 
.t'3(),;^^H),(KX).  ()id\  in  the  old  piovinces  torming  tlu-  kingdom  ol 
Sardinia  was  there  any  elasticity  of  revemie  ;  in  all  other  prov- 
inci's  the  ousting  of  the  oKI  go\ernment  and  the  setting  up  of  I'le 
new  involved  almost  hopeless  fiscal  contusion  and  lo>s.  Incoi  le 
fell  off  anil  expendituie  increased  until  the  budgi-t  dchcits,  which 
had  nominalU  been  but  .t'^2(),fxx)  in  iS^(>  for  the  various  States 
composing  Italy,  rose  to  ovei  l\},t)(X}.(KXj,  the  greater  pait  ot 
wh;  was  due  to  the  Neapolitan  provinces  and  Sicily.  Taxes 
of  a!  odious  (.haiactiM  imposed  by  the  old  tvrannical  gov- 
crnnii  iits  had  to  be  taken  ><{]'  and  reduced  before  any  regular 
system  of  substitutes  could  be  Irained  to  take  thi  ir  place  ;  so  that, 
as  pointed  (lilt  in  the  re|)ort  of  a  financi-  connnittee,  also  <pioted 
bv  Mr.  llerries.  and  which  gi\es,  it  woidJ  sri m,  a  ditlerent 
estimate  from  that  of  I'asim,  the  income  dI"  the  Slates  forming 
United  Italy  fell  from  ovi'i"  t'2(X),(xX),(XX),  at  the  time  oi"  tlu-  break- 
ing out   of  tlu'  \v;ir,  to   .t'i8,5cx).cxx>,  the   following;    vear,  ami  the 


'  A'»»r/'<i*v»'  <///cy  l.ii;<itiiin   /{t-/uir/x,  |>;irt  iv.,  1S76. 

'  M;irtiii,  ill  Ills  .S7r(/«wiii)»'«  \'fiirl>i>(>/r,  states  tlio  di-lit  of  It.ily  iti  i*«),  tin?  vi-iir  lu'forr 
tilt'  t'liiiini  ipiitiiiii,  ut  £ii7.5'>().<Hi<),  hut  (Im-  not  ^ivr  Wfi  .iiitliority.  It  is  |ii)S.sil>lc  ho  iii;iy  )>(- 
li^lit,  txiHi'Xir,  ht'i'iiust'  till  ilt'Ut*'  lic'iiitj  ri-ckiiia-il  in  ililltrtnt  ciirrciu  iis,  smiiu  i>r  wliicli 
wi'rv  i>f  ftuitualiiiu  v  ilnis,  tlu  l'*^!  slaliiuijit  winch  rmiiil  !«•  i^ivi'ii  was  partly  only  an 
estimate. 


«i 


nil';  ki;(  KM"  i'k()(iKKss  or  hai.v. 


267 


cxpciKlitiiri'  I'xcfidc'd  tliiit  (limiiiislK-d  iijcoinc  ]>\  t'7,3f»,ooo. 
This  tklicit,  liowcv  ft .  as  (ttlii-is  similar,  ivlfis  iiiostlv,  it  iiol  ex- 
clusively, to  the  (irdiiiars  iiuoiiie  and  expeiiditiiie,  and  does 
not  iiu'hi<le  tiie  special  ontla\  incident  to  the  war,  which  is  par- 
tially at  least  represented  hy  the  increase  of"  the  jiultlic  deht.  In 
iS6<)  and  iSf)i,  no  less  than  sonic    f^^o.cxKJ.fKxj  nominal    ippears 


to  I 


lavc    l)ien    laised 


n\    loans,    issues  ot    mconvei 


tihli 


pa| 


)er,  or 


sales  of  stocks,  only  part  ol'  svhicii  liave  sime  lueii  redeemed.^ 
'I'here  were  six  separate  ImdLrets  lor  tlu-  vaiious  paits  of  Italv  in 
iM^K),  and  it  was  not  till  iS6itliat  the  j^ovc-rmncnl  was  able  to 
present  a  single  hud^'et  tor  the  united  nation  ;  l)nt  that  was  oidy 
the  initial  sta^j^e  of  tiie  task  which  Italian  liiianciers  had  helore 
them.  A  cumbersome  method  of  acconnt-keepiii;^  had  to  he 
swept  awav,  which  under  the  old  s\stem  entailed  the  mischief  of 
several  distinct  statements  of  actoniits  rumKii;(  alon^jside  each 
other.  'I'he  hiulj^et  passed  throu<j[h  no  less  than  seven  diflerent 
staj^es  before  it  could  be  considered  a  linishi-d  accoimt.  and  it 
was  not  till  l.SO<)  that  this  was  swept  away.  Now  the  linancial 
account  runs  even  \\  ilh  each  \iar,  and  comprises  within  it  oulv 
the  actual  receipts  and  pa\  ments  of  the  veai.  1  iirther  reforms  as  to 
the  administration  of  the  various  departments  of  the  .Stale  had  still 
to  be  carried  out.  and  it  was  only  the  other  year  that  Italv  could  be 
said  to  havi-  lu-i  linances  completely  uiuU-r  parliamentarv  control. 
A  far  more  formidable  dillicnltv  remains  to  be  noticed,    -  the  ret- 


Is  lonnin<r 


h\r   111-  in;iv  !><• 


'  I  tind  iiTi-.\l  livcru'riii  irs  in  llic  cstiiiiiiti-^  uiviMi  in  vati'iiis  \v<irk>  'it  tin-  present  drht  nl 
Ituly.  For  example,  K<>ll>,  ulunn  I  am  dispused  to  plaic  lirsl  as  a  <:ompiler  ol  st.ilistirN  of 
this  kiml,  ^ike»  the  <lelit,  lumleil  and  t!oalin^,at  tlic  eml  of  iS-^,  as  i>i,'/iri,i<>i,r«>i  liia,  the 
interest  iilwhuli  Is  .)()ci,  115,(11.)  lira.  In  other  words,  the  eapilal  of  the  dt  t>t  w.i-  £  (00, oro,. 
uxi  odd,  and  the  interestehar^e  just  under  JLiS,5iki,(xjo.  Martin,  on  (he  other  hand,  in  the 
new  isihuc  (ifliis  Stalesmuu's  Vear-buok,  places  the  capital  of  the  iMit  at  alioiil  ji\Sii,t*%i,- 
rxOT,  at  the  end  of  i^-;,  including;  of  course  th<'  paper  money,  and  llie  interest  chiirije  at  just 
over  £i,?,,V<''if'' •  A^aiii,  the  Invi'slot's  Atmithl y  Muniiiil,  A  pidilii  atlon  usually  accurate, 
.ind  with  li;;uies  to  a  more  ncinl  ilale  than  t  ither  .Martin  or  Kolh,  pl.iies  tin-  eapit.d  of  tlie 
deht  at  otilv  £  ;57,ooo,ii<i<i,  anil  the  interest  and  other  charges  tlniion  at  £  n,  (oi.uoo.  'I'his 
last  estimate  appears  to  me  to  lie  an  I'hvious  error,  hecause  tor  one  thmu  the  ilctii  its  on  the 
annual  liud^'et  have  not  yet  ceased,  and  these  alone  for  the  past  lour  years  have  amounted 
to  an  a(;|;re(;atc  of  £iS,n<in,(«)o,  which  has  necessarily  added  to  the  delit  in  noine  form. 
If  we  take  Kolli  to  he  eorreit,  theretoie,  llie  deht  at  Hie  end  of  last  year  cannot  have  l)een 
less  than  £  nci,(xxi,ooo  all  told.  I'his  is,  it  need  hardly  he  said,  a  very  serious  luirden  for  so 
younn  a  n.ition  to  carrv,  and  it  hi';  lieen  further  heavily  aui;nieiiled  sun  i-  liv  the  It.ilian 
poverninent  t.ikin){  over  the  It.ili.in  portion  id'  tne  old  l.oiiih.irdo.N'eni  li.iii  K.iihv.iys,  as  it 
contracted  with  the  Hothschilds  last  year  to  do.  This  har^jaiii  ivill  invoUi-  an  addition  to 
the  deht  of  at  least  £  ^u.ooo.rKx  ,  including  the  extra  payments,  .iiul  -liould  the  yi-arlv  defii  its 
linon,und  the  railways  not  pay,  —  liolh  likely  contingencies,  —  the  taxation  of  Italy  will 
have  ID  l)e  neriously  incre.ised.  My  iSSo  we  may  ex|>ect  to  see  llie  funded  and  floating  detit 
r.iiseil  to  the  amount  of  £47o,ik)o,ooo  to  £5(k),oxi,uo<i,  and  the  cliances  i>i  a  rediinjjtion  of 
the  paper  currency  almost  as  remote  as  tvir. 


t;!iiii,. 


i:i  < 


•  h 


268 


SKI.ECTIONS. 


oMiiatioii  of  tlu' taxes,  —  and  that  cannot  yet  he  said  to  l)e  anv- 
lliiiii^  like  coniplefed,  for  Italy  is  still  too  poor  to  have  a  consistent 
liscal  svstenj.  There  was  a  too  radical  cutting  dc'ii  ot  uhnox- 
ious  imposts  in  the  tii'st  moment  of  liheitv  and  nnitv,  when  men's 
hearts  o\  irllowed,  and  ever  since  the  j^ovei  nment  has  had  to  strii<^- 
<^de  painl'iilly  to  make  ends  meet.  Oneol  the  hest  sonrces  of 
national  income,  ne  property  and  the  land  lax,  has  also  heen 
most  dillicnlt  of  administration,  throni^h  the  ahsence  of  any- 
thinj^  like  a  sonnd  liasis  of  assessment,  and  it  now  only 
\  ields  s(imethin>4-  like  t'(),3(Xi,(xxj,  inchidiii;^  provincial  and  com- 
mnnal  surtaxes.  In  1S7.1  this  was  levied  upon  ^.  130. 1  )6  pro|)rie- 
tors,  and  the  averaj.je  impost  per  proprietor  for  i!n|)eiial  purposes 
only,  was  almost  exactly  t'l.  The  amount  of  this  tax  which 
actually  ^oes  to  the  State  is  thus  oidv  ahout  L'v"'><>,(XKi,  the  rest 
hein<^  devoted  to  loc.d  purposes  under  the  law  which  permits 
pro\  inces  and  communes  to  lew  certain  imposts  for  themselves. 
The  figures  as  regards  the  luimher  ot  peo|)le  assessed  cannot, 
liowevei',  he  di-peiided  upon,  any  more  than  the  cadastral  hasis  of 
the  tax  ;  and  there  is  no  reform  more  urt^ently  needed  than  the 
one  which  shall  distrihtite  the  hurden  fairlv  over  the  landowners 
and  jnetayeis.  At  present  the  tax  lalls  too  li<j;htly  on  some  j)arts 
of  the  coimtry,  and  on  the  tenant  classes,  and  fir  too  heavily  on 
others,  anil  alt(»<;ether  does  not  vield  prohahlv  within  millions  <jf 
what  it  oujj[ht  to  do.  Another  considerahle  source  of  revenue  is 
the  income  tax,  which  is  n(»t  however  to  he  taken  as  similar  in 
character  to  the  ICni^lish  tax  of  that  name,  heinj^  a  complex  and 
irritatiiiLT  impost  which  includes  licenses  of  various  kinds,  and 
which  piesses  very  heavilv  on  small  incomes.'  It  seems  to  vary 
in  character,  too,  in  dilVerent  parts  of  this  kiu'^dom.  The  <;rist-tax 
should  also  he  mentionetl  as  an  old  and  most  oppressive  impost  on 
the  j^rindin;^  ot"  coin,  which  was  w  ilhdrawn  ai  the  Kevolution, 
and   reimposed  atterwanls   under   pressiui'   of   the    necessities  of 


'  Mr.  IIiTfit's  makes  tlio  rollnwiti);  ciiriip:irisiiii  betwern  the  burdoii  ol'  tliis  tax  i>n  the 
Italians  and  cil'  tin-  Kiii;IUIi  iiuonif  tax.  His  li^iircM  wt-iv  >'oin|iilt'(l  ht-loic  tin:  datf  ot'  .Sir 
Sl.illoril  \iirtluii|i\  hinlyil  !a>)  Vf:.r,  wliirli  rcliiviil  mm. ill  iricdiiiis  ii|i  In  £  ^ik),  wliilc  iiii 
piisiiiH  an  ailillliiiiial  pi  iiiiy  "ii  all  licvoiiil  that;  but  tliiv  arc- suiruicnllv  ilnsr  Id  the  facts, 
ami  illu^lratr  llu'  pcciili.ir  irritation  cil' the  Itali.iii  tax.  "An  l'!nv;lislMuaii  having;  an  income 
ol'  e!i;u;tly  £101)  pays  nnthiiin.  An  Ualian  pays  on  its  eipiiv  alenl,  it  in  Calej;ory  A,  Jti.i 
^s. ;  if  ill  C'atejjory  H,  £y  iSs.;  il"  in  I'atejfory  C,  £S  5s.  A  so-called  '  prolessional  man' 
in  l>(Muloii,  with  an  int'r>nie  of  just  jL.(o<>i  P->ys  on  that  amount,  minus  JCSo,  a  tax  of  £1  ids. 
Sd.  If  he  establishes  himself  at  Kome,  he  will  soon  lliid  hi-,  me, ins  of  sul)sisten<-e  dimin- 
ished by  a  ehartje  of  £  i.(  15s.;  the  sum  w'lieli  in  Kn^land  wmild  be  due  from  a  commercial 
liouse  makiiig  a  clear  prolit  of  £i,yj'_'  a  year."' 


coiisistent 
of  obnox- 
a-ii  iiK'n's 
1  to  stiuj;- 
ioiirccs  of 
also   l)ceM 
J   ol    aiiy- 
iiovv    only 
and  com- 
/)  proprie- 
1  purposes 
tax   wliicii 
I),  tliL'  rest 
ii   permits 
u'lnselves. 
(1    cannot, 
al  basis  of 
1   than  the 
andowners 
ionie  parts 
heavily  on 
millions  of 
levenue  is 
similar  in 
nplex  and 
iiids,   and 
is  to  vary 
^nist-tax 
impost  on 
■volution, 
x'ssities  of 


s  l:ix   im    tile 
ic  il.itf  (il  Sii 

(IK),  wliiU'  iiii 
lo  the  fiicts, 

iiK  ;iii  iticoiiio 
■^'ory  A,  £is 

•-sioiial  iiiiin  ' 
IX  of  Xi  iiiN. 
.tiiice  (liiuiii 
I  cdinnicrcial 


i! 


TIIK    kK(  INI'    I'K'KikKSS    OF    IIAIV. 


269 


the  State.  In  its  new  form  it  is  vexatious,  and  that  it  should  be 
re(|uired  at  all  is  a  proof  both  of  the  poverty  which  Italy  still 
labors  under  and  of  the  imperfect  maimer  in  which  the  fiscal  re- 
forms have  yet  been  carried  out.      It  ;;ives  a  j^ross  return  of  about 

We  nii'^ht  pursue  this  subject  fmther,  and  lind  it  very  interest- 
ing ;  but  my  object  is  onlv  to  indicate  the  broad  tact  that  Italy  is 
reform  i  ntc  ;  is,  though  slowlv,  <^rowin<i  solidly  together;  that  she 
has,  to  all  appearance,  heaitily  adopted  constitutional  forms,  and 
is  shaping;  her  di-sliiiv  to  "^ood  purpose,  in  spite  of  the  many 
ilrawbacUs  to  w  Inch  she  is  subject.  Hy  means  of  the  chanjjjes  which 
have  been  introduced,  the  peace  and  security  that  have  prevailed, 
and  the  conseipient  increase  in  wealth,  the  jrross  income  of  the 
kingdom  has  slowly  recovered  itself,  until  in  1S75  it  amounted 
to  ,t'sSi4'^t),(XX).  In  1S76  it  was  rather  less,  bein;;  oidy  t'vj.iS(X),- 
000,  owinj;  to  the  ''sutlicient  harvest,  rather  than  to  any  weakness 
in  the  coimtry.  In  1S77  the  fiscal  estimate  of  ordinary  income 
was  al>out  .£'51 ,0(K),(xx),  but  the  total  receipts,  oidinaiy  and  ex- 
traordinary, were  placed  at  abtjut  £^C),cxxi,ix'i().  There  are  still 
deficits,  of  course,  but  they  are  <^rowiii;j^  on  the  whole  less  alarm- 
ing ;  that  for  1875  havinjr  been  only  t'l .  i  .!.|,cw)(),  tiiat  for  last  year 
i'l,l6o,OfX),  and  the  estimate  for  the  presint  year  showinj^a  sur- 
plus, which  will,  however,  in  all  possibility  prove  delusive. 
'I'here  is,  perhaps,  some  reason  to  hope  that  delicits  may  really 
disappear  before  lonj;,  unless  unforeseen  events  check  the 
gradual  development  of  the  community,  or  unless  the  imprutlent 
commitments  of  the  government  to  railway  purchases  and  ad- 
ministration lead  to  unexpected  loss.  I  sIkjuM  not  be  surprised, 
however,  were  this  to  pi'ove  the  case  ;  and,  if  so,  the  small 
delicits  of  the  last  year  or  two  may  again  increase  for  a  time,  but 
only  for  a  time.  Italv  has  but  to  push  forward  her  social  reforma- 
tion, to  steadily  reorgani/e  her  finances  and  her  provincial  ad- 
ministrations, and  there  can  be  no  fear  that  the  wealth  of  the  country 
will  not  be  found  in  lime  suflicient  to  furnish  all  the  government 
retjuires.  The  only  serious  elements  of  financial  danger  are  the 
funded  and  floating  debt,  and  the  wasteful  expenditure  of  the 
municii)al  and  district  governments;  some  of  the  Italian  cities, 
such  as  I-'lorence,  Naples,  and  (Jenoa,  being,  for  example,  almost 
as  speiulthrift  as  New  York.  These,  therefore,  constitute  grave 
dangers,  which  Italian  statesmen  cannot  too  tleeply  recogni/e. 
Not  only  should  every  effort  be  made  to  keep  down  the  national 


,'! 


I 


270 


SEI.ECTIOXS. 


'Ill 


:iii(l  lornl  cxpondilurc,  so  tli.it  tlicro  sliduld  l)e  no  fmllu-i"  increase 
ill  its  amount.  Ixit  e\iTv  ell'oit  should  he  made  to  rechice  tlie  delit 
also.  'This  is  espeiially  iieccssarv  with  re^^ard  to  the  paper  em- 
reiuv.  w  l)ieh  now  lorms  such  an  intolerable  draj;  upon  the  eom- 
meree  ol'  tlie  pi-ople.  In  amuunt  it  seems  lij,dit  liesidi-  that  ot" 
Franee,  i)ein<;  only  some  t' f(),fxx),(KX) ;  hut  tiien  the  population 
ol'  Ital\  and  the  trade  ol"  ltal\  are  both  n)ueii  less.  The  impotts 
and  t'xports  to<^ither  are  under  ,t'i<K).(KK).()(Kj,  or  less  than  a  tiiird 
of  those  of  I'ranee.  Moreoxer,  Italy  has  little  or  no  metallic 
reserve,  so  that  her  paper  curriiicv  is  ol"  necessity  bound  to  Ibict- 
uatewith  e\erv  adverse  mo\enu'nt  ol"  the  exchanges.  As  the 
iniports  of  the  country  have  been  stimulated  for  many  years  by 
the  issue  of  such  paper,  and  by  other  loans,  so  that  they  uniformly 
exceed  the  i-xports,  it  follows,  of  course,  that  exchaui^es  are  often 
adversely  allected.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  a  j^ood  deal  of 
Italian  rente  is  heUl  abroad,  in  l'"'rance,  Holland,  and  ICnj^land. 
aiul  we  have  abundant  materials  for  a  \ei\  troublesome  slate  of 
mercantile  credit  I'he  premium  on  ^'old  is  rarely  less  than  10 
per  cent.,  and  it  rises  sometimes  to  li  and  i^,or  even  to  20. 
Durin<;  one  year  the  Ibutuatictn  is  not  unfre(|uently  as  much 
as  fiom  5  to  7  per  cent.,  so  that  the  diiruulty  of  adjustinj^ 
prices,  so  as  to  avoid  ruinous  losses,  becomes  most  serious.  A 
premium  on  {jfold  becomes,  as  I  have  said  before,  a  universal  tax, 
because  no  commodity,  sold  or  bou;^ht,  can  be  madi-  exempt  from 
its  inlluei\ces.  Of  late,  however,  there  has  been  less  tendency  to 
violent  movement  in  this  <^old  premium,  and  the  ayera^^e  is  lower 
now  than  it  was  in  the  years  immediately  succeeilinjf  the  national 
independence.  Should  the  funded  debt  be  kept  well  within 
boiuids,  therefore,  it  mi<fht  be  worth  llu'  consideration  of  Italian 
statesmen  whether  the  jrovermnent  shouhl  not  make  an  approach 
tow.ards  a  resumption  of  specie  p.'iyments,  by  means  of  an  issue 
of  bonds  for  the  purpose  of  redeemin;^  the  cmrencv  debt.  A 
measure  of  the  kind,  were  it  accompanied  by  the  exemption  of 
the  foreign  creditors  of  the  imitate  from  an  income  tax,  which  is  not 
fairly  justiliable  when  imposed  on  loans  which  were  raiseil 
abroad,  would  do  a  {^reat  deal  to  ele\ale  the  commerce  of  Italy 
out  of  its  lilth-rate  position,  and  to  n.ake  it  scdidly  prosperous. 

There  ar'-,  as  we  see,  drawbacks  in  the  situation  of  the  country  ; 
but  lor  all  that  i  shall  miss  my  aim  jfrievcnisly,  if,  in  this  raj)id 
sketch,  givin<jj  the  outlines  of  both  sides  of  the  subject,  I  do  not 
show  that  Italy  has  made,  and  is  making,  steady  progress.     She 


iiir,  Ki;(  i;m'  I'KixiUKss  ok  main 


271 


! 


is  tiot  standing;  still,  1101  ^<>iii'4  l>;uU  in  litlu-i'  Iut  puliiiiaj  oi;;aiii- 
/atioii  (H  liiT  finances,  'I'Iil-  nalion  has  \italily  as  a  nation,  and 
tliron|Ljli  all  the  drawhacks  an<l  ditlicnltiis  one  ean  disvern  iho 
possihilits  of  a  new  fntnie  for  the  peninsula  whieli  onei-  ruled  the 
world.  .Splendidly  situated  lor  doin;^  at  all  evi-nls  a  i  onlinental 
tiadi-  with  Asia  and  the  far  l-'.ast,  it  is  possiMc  that  the  tidi-  o|" 
comnieree  will  partially  roll  hackwards  to  her  |on<^-deserted 
sliorcs.  W'l-  nuist  ti\,then,  to  lind  out  what  Italy  is  (|oin<4  in  the 
wav  of(le\  elopin<;  her  trade —  what  her  eapacitii-s  aif.  and  what 
hindrances  there  may  he  in  her  way  other  than  the  merely  linan- 
eial  or  administrati\e. 

In  the  Inst  |)hK'i-,  it  luay  he  at  (;uee  admitted  that  ltal\  is  not 
a  mainiraetnrin^  country  now,  nor  very  likely  speedily  to  heeoinc 
one.  riu'  races  which  inhahil  southern  Italy  aie  ill  adapted  lor 
the  hard  incessant  labor  to  which  *'  laclory  hands  "  and  ••  touiidrv 
hands  "  have  to  submit  in  any  country,  but  most  ot"  all  in  a  coun- 
try striving  to  establish  a  l)nsiiuvss  lor  itself  at  the  expense  of 
ri\als.  In  northern  Italy  theie  is  nnich  mon-  raw  capaiil\  for 
industry;  and  the  hardy  Lombards  or  I'iedmonlesi-  —  even  th.c 
Venetians  and  Tuscans  —  ud}^hl.  if  it  depended  upon  nuic  lalxtr 
alone,  rise  with  some  rapiditv  into  the  position  of  i  umpetllors 
with  other  nations  for  certain  kinds  ot'  manulactuiid  staples. 
But,  i^rantint,'  everythinj;  to  be  favorable  in  the  character  of  the 
|)eople,  ltal\  does  not  possess  the  raw  materials  necessarv  to  a 
<j;reat  maiuilactmin^  nation  in  sullicient  (piantities,  or  in  a  form 
so  readilv  accessible  as  to  make  it  pr)ssible  lor  her  to  in'coine  i_M'eat 


m 


tl 


us   wav 


'n 


le    fiiin    UK 


dust 


r\   in    wmcn    sue    can    i>e    sau 


1    to 


possess  some  advantaj^e  over  her  nei^^hbois  is  silk-wia\  in;4,  and 
in  this,  I  bi-lieve,  some  pioj^Mess  was  made  up  to  the  time  when 
a  change  of  fashion,  and  failuie  in  the  Italian  silk  crop,  ^ave  the 
entire  industi y  a  severe  blow  ;  but  as  a  ])ro(Kicer  of  textile  tabrics 
yenerallv,  Italy  does  not  promisi-  to  take  a  strong  |ii>sition.  Ilir 
exports  of  silk,  raw  and  manufactured,  avera'^ed  in  value  alxmt 
L'l  >,CKX),()CX)  in  the  vears  iSjo  to  1S7},  accordinj^  t()  tables  ;^i\tn 
by  Mr.  llerries.  This  was  balanced  to  some  extent  b\  imports 
of  the  average  value  of  t"5,5(X),(K)<).  Hesides  silk,  Ilalv  j^rows  a 
certidn  amount  of  cotton,  but  not  neaily  enou<^h  to  supply  her 
own  wants;  and  althonj^h  she  has  an  export  tra<Ie  to  Austria  in 
cotton  tissue,  it  is  more  of  a  transit  trade,  I  believe,  than  the 
residt  of  the  competition  of  Italian  spinners  and  weavers.  Her  in- 
dustries  are,  indeed,  all,   except   that  of  silk,  small    and  of  tpiite 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


■u  lii   ■■122 


1.8 


LA.  1111.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MS80 

(716)  873-4503 


<"   C^x 


C/u 


w^ 


^ 


272 


SELECTIONS. 


.,' '  .• 


;     ( 


iilHi 


K 


local   importance.     Italy  is  in  nothing  more  provincial,  in  fact, 
than   in   the    isolated  condition  of  her  cotton,  linen,  and  woollen 
manufactures.     But,  although  insignificant,  they  still  increase  in 
a  measure,  and   may  ..'ell  grow  very  much   bigger  without   inter- 
fering  in   tlie   least  witli  the   purchasing  power  of  Italy  in  other 
countries,  or  competing  very  seriously  in  foreign  markets.     With 
her  immediate   neighbors,   Switzerland,   Austria,  and  France,  it 
is  in  the  nature  of  things  that   her  trade  should  grow  larger,  and 
that  where  competition  is  possible  Italian  products  should  in  some 
directions  beat  ours  ;  but  there  is  yet  certainly  nothing  alarming 
in  the  situation,  and   we  have  no  cause  to  be  envious  of  her  pros- 
perity.    At  present  the  total  export  and  import  trade  of  Italy  is, 
as  I   have   said,   well   under   JLVi 00,000,000,   and   the  bulk  of  the 
exports  —  silk,    oil,   wine,    marble,    and    glass  —  are    of  a    kind 
which  do  not  come  much  within  our  competing  range.     As  far 
as  the  direct  trade   with  Great  Britain   is   concerned,  it  is  not  on 
the  whole  steady  and   profitable,  and   amounts  to  about  an  eighth 
part  of  her  entire  commerce  ;    Italy  buying  from  us  much  more 
largely  than  we   do    from  her,   although   the   discrepancy  is   less 
now  than  it  has  been,  owing   in  part,  I   fear  it  must  be  said,    to 
the  more  efl'ectual  competition  of  French  manufacturers.     The 
consumption  of  Indian  and  Egyptian  raw  cotton  is  also  steadily 
increasing   in  Italian  mills,  although  these  are  in   great  part  still 
of  a  primitive  kind.     Some  progress  has  been  made  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  small  iron-works,  and  one  work  at  Venice,   belong- 
ing to  an  Englishman  named  Nevill,  has  attained  to  some  local 
celebrity.     Italy  possesses  few  iron  mines,  however,  and,  as  far 
as  we  know,  has  no  rich  contiguous  stores  of  iron  and  coal,  such 
as  are  essential  to  a  country  destined  to  lead  in  almost  any  branch 
of  skilled   production.^     We   must,   therefore,   after   making  all 
allowance  for  the  signs  of  local  activity  which  are  to  be  met  with 
in  the  country,  come  to   the  conclusion  that  Italy  is  not  in  a  posi- 
tion to  become  a  great  manufacturing  centre.     Her  people  are  by 
preference  pastoral ;   and  as  in  France,  although  the  tenure  of  the 
land   is  not  the  same,  large  tracts  of  the  soil  are  parcelled  out 


1  In  Kolb's  Vergleichende  Statistik  it  is  stated  that  the  average  annual  value  of  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  in  Italy  in  the  years  iS67-"owas  just  over  £Soo,ooo,  the  product  of  ii,ioo 
workpeople;  thatof  copper,  £53,000,  won  by  the  laborof  3,500  workmen.  Coal  and  petroleum 
together  represented  the  insignificant  value  of  £126,000  and  gave  employment  to  3,450  work- 
men. Lead  was  considerably  more  valuable  than  copper,  but  it  only  gave  an  average  of 
about  £330,000,  a  quantity  clearly  not  sufficient  for  home  consumption.  Italy  is,  in  fact,  a 
steady  consumer  to  England  for  the  metals  of  manufacture  and  for  coal. 


ial,  in  fact, 
nd  woollen 
increase  in 
thout  inter- 
aly  in  other 
iets.     With 
1  France,  it 
larger,  and 
uld  in  some 
ig  alarming 
of  her  pros- 
:  of  Italy  is, 
bulk  of  the 
of  a   kind 
ige.     As  far 
,  it  is  not  on 
ut  an  eiglith 
much  more 
)ancy  is   less 
be  said,   to 
urers.     The 
jalso  steadily 
it  part  still 
n  the  estab- 
ice,  belong- 
some  local 
and,  as  far 
coal,  such 
any  branch 
making   all 
be  met  with 
t  in  a  posi- 
ople  are  by 
nure  of  the 
rcelled  out 


0 


alue  of  the  pro- 
roduct  of  ii,ioo 
1  and  petroleum 
nt  to  3,450  work- 
;  an  average  of 
ly  is,  in   fact,  a 


THE   RECENT    PROGRESS   OF   ITALY. 


amongst  small  holders,  whose  position  is  nearly  as  secure,  if  not 
so  independent,  as  that  of  the  French  peasant  proprietor,  and  the 
attractions  of  tlie  workshops  are  not  sufficient  to  draw  a  compara- 
tively comfortable  and  by  no  means  crowded  population  from 
their  fields.' 

But,  though  not  a  great  manufacturing  nation,  Italy  is,  as  we 
have  seen,  advancing  in  several  respects  as  a  protluccr  of  articles 
meant  for  home  use,  and   her  tariff  is,  like  that  of  other  countries 

'  Accordine;  tn  the  return  i)iiblished  in  1861,  the  hitest  which  seems  to  be  available,  about 
8,000,000  of  tlie  population  of  2j,(xio,o(X)  then  comprising  Italy  wereeniplnyed  in  afjricultural 
pursuits,  and  a  nearly  e()ual  nimdier  were  returned  as  "without  calliii}^."  The  number 
engaged  in  miu'rral  production  was  less  than  60,000,  and  there  were  devoted  to  manufac. 
tures  about  3,100,000.  In  this  latter  would  of  course  be  included  all  the  local  tradesmen, 
the  shoemakers,  smiths,  carpenters,  masons,  and  clockmakers,  which  go  to  make  up  the 
population  of  the  villages,  so  that  the  numbers  engaged  actually  in  what  we  should  i:.  this 
country  call  manufactures  would  probably  not  reach  half  that  figure.  These  figures  are  not  of 
so  much  value  now,  however,  for  Italy  has  been  changed  and  opened  up  greatly  >ince  then, 
and,  in  some  of  the  northern  provinces,  manufactures  and  agriculture  overlap  each  other, 
so  that  the  same  people  ought  to  he  classed  in  both;  not  only  so,  but  the  addition  to  the 
population,  both  by  natural  increment  and  through  the  incorporation  of  fresh  provinces,  has 
materially  added  to  the  proportituis  of  certain  classes.  Instead  of  2J,ooo,ocx),  Italy  has  now 
a  population  of  27,500,000,  of  which,  according  to  Behm  and  Wagner's  last  Annual,  on  the 
population  of  the  earth,  issued  in  Petermann's  Mittheilungen,  6,900,000,  or  25.7  per  cent., 
form  the  scattered  population,  the  remainder  being  gathered  in  the  cities,  towns,  and  agri- 
cultural villages  of  the  land.  I  am  unable  to  say,  however,  what  proporliiui  of  the  entire 
population  may  now  be  actually  employed  in,  or  directly  dependent  upon,  the  labor  of  the 
agriculturist,  Krom  an  tillicial  report  lately  issued  on  the  state  of  the  Italian  agriculture  in 
the  years  1870-74,  of  which  copious  analyses  have  been  appearing  both  in  the  Kconomista 
d' Italia  and  in  the  Economisle  Franqais,  I  learn  that  ii,6oo,cxx)  acres  of  land  are  devoted 
to  wheat,  and  yield  about  142,420,000,  bushels,  or,  roughly,  a  little  more  th.in  twelve  bushels 
to  the  acre,  — a  very  small  yield  for  so  rich  a  country,  and  the  best  commentary  we  could 
have  upon  the  exceeding  backwardness  of  agriculture.  Of  mal/.e,  rice,  barley,  and  oats 
the  yield  was  rather  belter,  as  the  following  table  will  show  :  — 


Total  yield  in 

Yield  per 

Acres. 

Kushels. 

Acre. 

Maize 

4,242,000 

85,959,000 

20.3 

Rice    . 

582,000 

27,000,000 

46.4 

Barley  and  rye 

1,162,000 

18,417,000 

15-8 

Oats    . 

798,000 

20,471,000 

25.6 

Allowing  for  the  difference  of  grains,  this  table  still  shows  great  variableness  in  the  yield. 
At  the  worst,  however,  Italy  compares  very  favorably  with  such  a  country  as  KuHsia,  where  the 
yield  peracreof  wheat  is  estimated  in  the  latest  returns  at  only  five  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre. 
The  total  yield  of  wheat  in  Italy  is  indeed  within  15,000,000  bushels  of  that  of  Russia,  and 
leaves  a  considerable  margin  for  export.  Besides  these  grains  and  root  crops,  olives,  cotton, 
and  flax,  a  large  acreage  is  devoted  to  the  vine,  no  less,  according  to  the  table  from  which 
1  quote,  tluiii  4,7oo,(X3o  acres,  the  yield  upon  which  was  597,ooo,cxki  gallons  of  wine.  Alto- 
gcther,  the  ..,';ricultural  land  in  Italy  included  in  the  official  returns  exiciids  to  6S,ooo,(xx) 
acres.  The  tendency  would  seem  to  be  to  extend  the  pasture  lands,  a  good  trade  oll'ering  to 
Italy  in  cattle  with  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  France,  which  the  vegetarian  habits  of  the 
agricultural  population  enables  it  to  turn  to  better  account  than  the  mere  enumeration 
of  the  flocks  would  lead  one  to  suppose.  In  horses  particularly  Italy  is  poor,  and  she 
stands  numerically  in  all  kinds  of  animals  behind  Austria  and  Hungary,  but  for  all  that 
she  can  export  to  them. 


\  ■'  ■ 


:?» 


■P 


!:- ! 


i 

II 

jkii! 

1 

j 

j 

1 

i 

^1 

2/4 


SELECTIONS. 


I  lit  if 


:l! 


>  t 


\\\  i 


t  ii 


we  have  mentioned,  acting  as  a  strong  bulwark  to  protect  the 
home  producer  against  competition.  One  would  imagine,  for 
example,  that  in  the  matter  of  silk  the  Italian  manufacturer  would 
retjuire  little  or  nothing  in  the  shape  of  protection,  seeing  that  he 
could  set  up  his  mills  in  the  heart  of  a  silk-growing  country,  and 
yet  Italy  levies  a  duty  on  all  kinds  of  silk  tissues  imported,  which, 
though  small,  is,  like  the  Indian  duties  on  cotton  goods,  sufficient 
to  debar  foreign  imports  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  to  raise 
prices  at  home.  Woollen,  cotton,  and  linen  fal)rics  are  more 
heavily  taxed  still,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  note  which  I  append  ;  ' 
and,  speaking  generally  of  the  Italian  taritV,  we  may  say  that, 
instead  of  being  now  light  and  lilieral,  as  Count  Cavour  wished 
it  to  be,  when  compared  with  that  of  other  European  countries, 
it   is  essentially  the  tariff'  of  a   country  devoted    to    protectionist 

'  The  iiiijiort  duty  cIi;ir<fC(l  at  Italian  ports  on  silk  tissues  is  j  per  cent,  tid  valorem,  or  is. 
id.  per  lb.;  ril)l)(ins  pay  from  is.  lod.  to  2s.  iid.  per  lb.  if  of  silk  alone,  and  lo  per  cent. 
ad  valorem  if  mixed.  Only  silk  twist  is  admitted  tree.  Cotton  y.irn,  on  the  other  hand, 
pays  according  to  fineni'ss,  and  to  whether  it  is  bleached  and  dyed  or  unbleached,  a  duty 
varyinjf  from  6s.  id.  to  14s.  id.  per  cwt.,  the  twists  and  double  yarns  and  bleached  and  dyed 
ditto  paying  respectively  us.  gd.  and  14s.  id.  On  cotton  tissues  the  duty  is  very  heavy, 
varying  from  i6s.  5d.  on  unbleached  cotton  to  47s.  on  cotton  prints  per  cwt,,  while  cotton 
embroidery  pays  £.).  14s.  3d.  per  cwt.  Woollen  yarn  conies  off  worse  still,  uiidyed  paying 
iSs.  gi\.  and  <lyed  jSs.  3d.  per  cwt.,  while  woollen  cloths  pay  sul)st!intially  about  the  same 
nominal  duties  per  cwt.  as  cotton.  Itlankcts  and  carpets,  for  examjile,  are  charged  ^38.  6d. 
to  3is.  6d.,  accordii-.g  to  quality,  per  cwt. ;  tapes  and  lace  of  pure  wool,  or  mixed,  £4  13s.  6d. 
Ordinaiy  woollen  tissues  or  cloths  pay,  however,  either  a  10  per  cent,  aj  valorem  duty,  or 
£3  js.  per  cwt.  What  the  incidence  of  much  of  this  taxation  is  according  to  the  values  of 
the  articles  taxed,  it  is  of  course  impossible  for  any  but  exporters  to  tell;  but  it  must  vary 
considerably,  and  in  some  instances,  when  the  cloth  is  of  a  cheap  kind,  re|>resent  some- 
thing like  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  its  value,  or  more.  The  same  may  lie  said  of  linen,  hempen, 
and  jute  fabrics,  all  of  wliich  pay  heavy  duties,  which,  if  nominally  less  in  amount  than 
those  levied  by  France  or  Russia,  are  by  their  rough  and  ready  mode  of  adjustment  prob- 
ably  practically  as  prohibitory.  Measured  by  the  wealth  of  Italy,  compared  with  France, 
they  must  be  more  so.  As  to  iron  and  steel,  the  tarifl'of  Italy  rs,  if  anything,  more  foolish 
than  that  of  any  other  country  we  have  had  under  review,  because  in  this  instance  there  is 
nothing  to  be  protecteil  worth  speaking  of.  There  are  no  blown-up  hectic  home  industries 
in  iron  to  pamper  and  to  fine  the  people  for  the  maintenance  of,  as  in  the  I'nited  States;  and 
therefore  these  duties  have  here  not  even  the  irrational  excuse  which  the  States,  France, 
Austria,  and  Germany  may  plausibly  advance.  Italy  charges,  for  all  that,  a  duty  of  some 
sort  on  every  kind  of  iron  except  pig-iron  and  broken  scraps.  In  some  cases,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, rails,  the  duty  is  relatively  low,  only  some  jjd.  per  cwt.,  or  9s.  2d.  per  ton;  but  in 
others  it  is  very  high, —  steel  wire  paying  os.  sd.;  rolled  and  bar  steel,  5s.  yd.;  plates, 
6s.  id.;  fine  iron  wire,  3s.  3id.;  tools  for  mechanics  or  agriculturists,  3s.  yd.;  knives  of 
ordinary  kinds,  20s.  4d.;  and  with  fine  handles,  40s.  Sd.  per  cwt.  Steam-engine  boilers 
and  machinery  of  all  sorts  also  pay  duties  ranging  from  is.  y^d.  to  4s.  lojd.  per  cwt.; 
agricultural  machines  being  admitted  at  the  lowest  scale.  All  this  indicates  an  extreme 
short-sighted  policy,  because  it  is  hampering  the  progress  of  the  community,  without  doing 
any  class  in  it  even  a  temporary  benefit,  or  bringing  the  government  much  profit.  And 
these  are  by  no  means  all.  Italy  taxes  the  import  of  food  grains,  of  meats,  of  sugar  (which 
pays  from  Ss.  5d,  to  us.  gd.  per  cwt.,  according  to  fineness),  and  chemicals  (such  as  the 
alkalies  so  valuable  in  agriculture),  and  yet  with  it  all  the  gross  income  from  the  customs 
barely  reaches  £4,000,000  a  year. 


THE   RECENT    PROGRESS   OK    ITALY. 


-"75 


protect  the 
iiagiiie,  for 
turcr  would 
iing  that  he 
ountry,  and 
rted,  which, 
Is,  sufficient 
nd  to  raise 
;s  are  more 
I  append ; ' 
lay  say  that, 
^'our  wished 
n  countries, 
protectionist 

d  valorem,  or  is. 
md   10  per  cent. 
1  tlii;  otlier  haiiii, 
ihleaclicd,  a  duty 
li'iiclicd  and  dyed 
ty  is  very  heavy, 
\vt.,  while  cotton 
1,  undyed  paying 
f  about  the  same 
:harged  23s.  6d. 
ixed,  £4  13s.  6d. 
Hilorem  duty,  or 
to  tlie  values  of 
lut  it  must  vary 
rei)resent  some- 
linen,  hempen, 
in  amount  than 
djustment  prob. 
(1  with  France, 
ig,  more  foolish 
istance  there  is 
lome  industries 
ited  States;  and 
States,  France, 
a  duty  of  some 
:ases,  as,  for  ex- 
per  ton  ;    but  in 
5s.  7d.;  plates, 
yd. ;    knives  of 
•engine  boilers 
lojd.  per  cwt.; 
ates  an  extreme 
',  without  doing 
ch  profit.    And 
jf  sugar  (which 
Is  (such  as  the 
oni  the  customs 


ideas.  Driven  by  stress  of  poverty,  Italian  statesmen  not  pos- 
sessed of  the  political  sagacity  of  Count  Cavour  have  reimposed 
some  very  obnoxious  custom  duties,  and  increased  their  burden, 
without,  however,  adding  materially  to  the  yield,  wiiile  certainly 
hindering  the  development  of  the  trade  of  the  nation.  Comnared 
with  the  fragmentary  tarifls  in  force  in  1858,  the  duties  are,  how- 
ever, still  very  low,  and  Italy  should  get  credit  here  al.so,  for  at  all 
events  not  slipping  back  into  the  slough  from  which  she  emerged. 
Still,  the  present  tariff  is  higher,  in  a  gooil  many  instances,  than 
that  in  force  in  1863  and  1864,^  which  alarmed  the  short-sighted 
economists  of  the  country  by  the  smallness  of  its  yield ;  and  it 
is  apparently  further  beset  by  vexatious  provisions  and  excessive 
charges  which  aggravate  importers  and  cumber  business,  without 
yielding  any  adequate  'return.  We  may  hope  then  that,  when 
the  time  comes  for  a  fresh  revision  of  the  general  and  special 
customs  tariffs  of  the  kingilom, — as  come  it  speedily  must.  — a 
step  forward  will  be  taken,  and  that  England  will  be  admitted 
with.in  the  inner  circle,  if  Italy  camiot  find  it  in  her  heart  to  open 
her  gates  to  all  alike.  But  at  present  it  must  be  candidly  admit- 
ted that  the  signs  are  the  othei  way.  From  year  to  year  Italy 
has  been  going  to  revise  her  general  taritl",  but  hitherto  the  revi- 
sion has  been  postponed.  A  fragmentary  tariff  between  Italy  and 
France  was,  however,  signed  in  the  middle  of  July  last,  and  it 
indicates  rather  an  increase  of  fiscal  obstructiveness  than  the  re- 
verse. Sundry  duties  on  articles  specially  affecting  the  two 
countries,  such  as  wine  and  silk,  have  been  arrangetl  mostly  for 
the  worse,  and  Italy  has  distinguished  herself  in  particular  by 
large  additions  to  her  list  of  export  duties.  Altogether  this 
treaty  augurs  ill  for  free  trade,  and  ill  for  the  reciprocal  t>usineHs 
of  Italy  and  France,  which  has  lately  been  flourishing  apace. 
We  may  rest  patiently,  therefore,  under  the  present  burdens  im- 
posed on  our  trade,  lest  a  worse  evil  befall  us.  A  few  years' 
further  experience  of  the  mischiefs  in  the  present  system  may  lead 
to  change  in  the  direction  of  freedom,  which  Italy  is  clearly  un- 
prepared for  now. 

Yet  it  would  be  decidedly  the  interest  of  Italy  to  revise  lier 
tarirt'  in  a  free-trade  sense,  were  it  for  no  otiier  reason  tlian  that 
her  wealth  is  neither  miner;  1  nor  industrial  in  the  English  sense 
of  the  terms,  but  agricultural.     How  decidedly  Italy  is  a  pastoral 

'  See  table  in  Mr.  Heiries'  Report,  pp.  597-599. 


U^ 


1(1 


276 


SELECTIONS. 


country  is  seen  best  by  lier  actual  foreign  trade;  the  staple  ex- 
ports of  Italy,  bcyontl  her  silk  and  her  small  amount  of  silk 
jiianufactures,  being  oil  and  wine,  fruits  and  seeds,  cereals  and 
hides,  timber,  animals,  hemp,  and  flax,  some  sorts  of  provisions, 
and  a  little  wool.  She  is  inevital)ly,  in  spit:;  of  the  development 
of  her  local  industries  and  manufactures,  much  dependent  on 
foreign  supply  for  many  necessary  articles  of  clothing,  for  much 
of  her  machinery  used  in  mills,  on  farms,  on  railways,  and  in 
steamboats.  Italy  is,  in  consequence,  and  in  spite  of  herself, 
therefore,  a  customer  of  growing  importance,  either  to  Great 
liritain  or  to  industrial  countries  such  as  France  or  Germany, 
and  she  ought  to  recognize  the  faC;  so  as  to  make  the  bene- 
fits as  mucli  as  possible  mutual.  For  example,  she  took  from 
us  alone,  in  1875,  about  £2,600,000  worth  of  cotton  yarn  and 
piece  goods,  besides  what  may  have  reached  her  indirectlv, 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  iron  and  iron  manufactures,  as 
well  as  woollen  goods  and  coal.  The  character  of  her  trade 
with  us  is  very  decidedly  fixed  by  the  taritV,  however,  and 
we  discover  here,  as  in  the  case  of  France,  a  tendency  to 
take  from  us  raw  or  half-manufactured  articles  in  increasinsr 
quantities,  rather  than  the  finished  goods.  It  is  not  satis- 
factory, for  instance,  from  our  point  of  view,  to  find  that  the 
value  of  cotton  yarn  entered  for  Italy  was,  in  1875,  almost  as 
large  as  the  value  of  the  cotton  cloths.  It  shows  us  that,  how- 
ever unfitted  Italy  may  be  by  nature  and  circumstances  to  become 
a  great  manufacturing  country,  she  can  at  least  secure  the  tem- 
porary advantage  of  being,  in  a  consi>'erable  measure,  her  own 
provider.  Still  less  satisfactory  is  it  to  find  that  for  some  years 
France  has  been  gaining  steadily  where  we  have  been  losing,  and 
tliat  although  our  general  trade  with  Italy  gives  few  signs  of 
weakness,  but  rather  the  reverse,  our  cotton  manufacturers  are 
being  decidedly  elbowed  out  of  her  market. 

The  following  tables  given  by  Mr.  Malet  in  his  report  to  the 
Foreign  Office  on  the  trade  of  Italy  for  1S75,  will  show  the  posi- 
tion most  clearly  :  — 


THE  RECENT  PROGRESS  OF  ITALY 


277 


staple  ex- 
unt  of  silk- 
cereals  and 
provisions, 
evelopinent 
pendent    on 
g,  tor  much 
ays,  and  in 
of  herself, 
:;r  to   Great 
r  Germany, 
E   the  benc- 
e  took  from 
)n  yarn  and 
r    indirectly  1 
ifactures,  as 
af  her  trade 
)\vever,    and 
tendency   to 
n  increasing 
s    not   satis- 
ind  that  the 
;,  almost  as 
that,  how- 
:;s  to  become 
re   the  tem- 
re,  her  own 
some  years 
losing,  and 
"evv  signs  of 
acturers  are 

eport  to  the 
ovv  the  posi- 


Tiihlf  slinxvinj,"  thf  Viilue  of  Imports  from  Enffliind  and  France  to  Italy  of  Tissiit'x  of  tlemp 
or  Flax  of  Irss  than  nhh-  lliriuuls  of  Warp  in  the  space  of  five  Millimetres,  -.whether  Iiav.> 
or  Bleached,  during  the  five  years  ending  December  31,  1S75. 


Eiiijliind 
France     . 


1871. 


I'K. 

1.473 

000 

7<;S, 

coo 

1872. 


Fu. 


1873. 


Fk. 


1,^87,000  I      1,035,000 
717,000  j      1,031,000 


1874. 

Fk. 

97S,ax) 

674,000 


1870. 


Fit. 

1,145,000 

1,338,000 


Table  showing  the  Value  of  Imports  from  England  and  France  to  Italy  of  Cotton  Tissues, 
also  mixed  -t'ith  Thread  and  Wool,  Colored,  Dyed,  or  Printed,  during  the  five  years 
ending  Diccmber  31,  1S75. 


Kngland  :  — 
Cotton  or  dyed 
Printed    .   .    . 

France:  — 
Cotton  or  dyed 
Printed    .    .   . 


1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1876. 

Fk. 

Fk. 

Kr. 

Fk. 

Fk. 

6,732,000 

6,458,000 

6,339,000 

4,267,000 

5,529,000 

17,778,000 

I4,O20,OfX) 

i4,.i75,o(K) 

i"/'33.™» 

I2,6</>,(VX) 

24,510,000 

22,478,000 

22,814,000 

14,900,000 

18,225,000 

2,620,000 

3,727,000 

4.497.000 

5,5f/i,ooo 

6,649,000 

5,31 1, 0.X) 

6,326,000 

7,748,000 
12,245,000 

7,i(',6,<x)o 

8,472,000 

7,93i,cxxD 

10,053,000 

12,732,000 

15,123,000 

Table  showing  the  Value  of  Imports  from  England  and  France  into  Italy  of  Tissues  of 
Wool  or  /lair,  also  mixed  with  Cotton  or  Thread,  during  the  Jive  years  ending  Decern- 
i<';-3>,  1S75. 


1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1876. 

England :  — 
P'lying  ad  valorem  duties. 
Paying  by  weight  .... 

Fk. 
16,542,000 

3,170,000 

I-K. 
15,734,000 
3,103,000 

Fk. 

12,485,000 
.VS,!3.ooo 

Fk. 

9,52 1, fXX) 

3,204,000 

Fk 
10,873,000 

2,074,(XXJ 

France :  — 
Paying  ad  valorem  duties. 
Paying  by  weight  .... 

19,712,000 

7,231,000 
4,918,000 

18,837,000 

9,225,000 
6,653,000 

16,018,000 

10,500,000 
6,926,000 

12,725,000 

11,015,000 
7,812,000 

12.947,000 

i4,47i,<x)0 
6,831,000 

12,149,000 

15,878,000 

17,462,000 

i8,827,(X)0 

21,302,000 

Embassy  and  Legation  Reports,  Part  II.,  1S77,  p.  137. 


Wpr^ 


In, 


lir 


Ml 


Mi 


II :  ) 


n\r 


278 


SELECTIONS. 


These  fijifures  arc  of  a  sufficiently  startling  kiiitl,  and  would 
seem  to  make  f^ood  the  contention  of  Air.  Malet,  tiiat  French 
manufacturers  have  now  the  advantage;  of  us.  Tliere  is  no  reason 
to  he  alarmed  at  that  fact,  even  supposiiif^  it  true,  atul  least  of  all 
as  rcji^ards  Italy,  which  is  France's  next  door  neii^hhor  ;  hut  I  am 
disposed  to  think  that  the  importance  of  tliis  u^rowlh  of  tiie  French 
trade  in  tissues  mi'.Hit  be  easily  exa<2^j^erate(l,  and  that  were  trade 
to  he  made  free,  we  should  rejj^ain  a  considerable  part  of  tlie  jijround 
we  have  lost.  At  present  both  tariiV  and  freight  are  aj^ainst  us, 
and  the  freijjjht  probably  turns  the  scale  as  compared  with  France, 
more  than  anythin^j  else.  And  these  fi<fures  at  least  tend  to  con- 
firm the  statement  that  Italy  is  dependent  on  foreign  supply  in 
most  important  branches  of  manufacture.  Her  taritfrnay  give  a 
certain  forced  prosperity  to  some  of  her  endeavors  to  become  a 
rival  of  h^ngland  and  France,  but  she  has  no  other  advantage  than 
her  taritV  gives,  for  living  is  not  much  cheaper  for  the  working 
classes  in  Italy  than  here,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  are  less  capable, 
more  ignorant,  and  more  disposed  to  "  scamp  "  work  tiian  our 
own,  so  that,  with  wages  nominally  on  a  lower  scale,  the  real 
cost  of  production  in  Italy  is  probably  higher  than  here.  I  have 
not,  indeed,  attempted  to  discuss  in  anyadecpiate  way  the  "  labor 
element"  or  the  "wages  element,"  in  dealing  with  the  competing 
capacities  of  other  countries  in  contrast  with  our  own,  because,  in 
my  judgment,  they  are  of  comparatively  secondary  importance  to 
the  jjrimary  forces  of  reserves  of  capital,  of  habit,  and,  above  all, 
of  geographical  and  physical  adaptabilities.  Against  the  enor- 
mous advantage  which  England  still  possesses  over  almost  all  other 
countries  in  most  respects,  were  she  free  of  the  markets  of  the 
world  as  tiie  world  is  free  to  hers,  the  labor  and  wages  elements 
have,  in  my  opinion,  little  force.  It  is  not  labor  itself  so  much  as 
the  facilities  for  applying  labor  in  all  departments  of  manufacture 
in  the  most  economic  maimer  possible  which  determines  the 
battle,  and  in  these  facilities  110  country  in  the  world  can  hope  for 
some  time  to  rival  us.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the  policy  of  Italy 
tends  to  figiit  against  this  superiority,  I  hold  it  to  be  mistaken  ; 
but  it  is  a  policy  which  we  cannot  immediately  hope  to  see 
departed  from  there  or  elsewhere  ;  and  we  cannot  therefore  expect 
that  the  present  reaction,  partly  the  result  of  over-speculation, 
partly  artificial,  will  soon  end  even  in  increased  demand  from  Italy 
for  our  woven  fabrics,  although  in  regard  to  our  general  trade 
with  that  country  we  have  good  reason  to  be  hopeful. 


THE    RECENT   I'ROCIRESS   OK   ITAI.V. 


179 


aiul  would 
lat  French 
i  no  reason 
least  of  all 
;  ])ut  I  am 
the  Frencli 
were  trade 
the  (jround 
ai^ainst  us, 
ith  France, 
end  to  con- 
1  supply  in 
may  give  a 
o  become  a 
antage  than 
:he  working 
,'.ss  capable, 
rU  than  our 
de,  the  real 
jre.     1  have 
'  the  "'  labor 
i  competing 
because, in 
iportance  to 
1,  above  all, 
st  the  enor- 
ost  all  other 
rkets  of  the 
es  elements 
'  so  much  as 
iianufacture 
>rmines   the 
:an  hope  for 
icy  of  Italy 
mistaken  ; 
ope  to   see 
fore  expect 
peculation, 
d  from  Italy 
Mieral  trade 


Left  unforced,  the  course  which  Italy  jnight  pursue  with  most 
advantage  to  herself  and  to  the  world,  as  a  commercial  nation,  is 
very  clearly  marked  out  by  her  poverty*  her  physical  peculiari- 
ties, and  her  geographical  situation.  To  the  fust  we  shall  refer 
again  presently.  As  to  the  second  we  need  oidy  say  that  tlie 
highly  favored  climate  and  rich  soil  of  Italy  render  her  admirably 
adapted  for  the  production  of  wine,  oil,  sugar,  maize,  and  choice 
fruits,  for  which  she  would  find,  and  does  find,  a  readv  market, 
not  in  Europe  only,  but  also  in  the  East,  and  in  America,  North 
and  South.  Already  a  considerable  trade  is  established  with  the 
United  ''  ates,  for  instance,  and  the  large  tlow  of  Italian  emigra- 
tion to  that  region,  as  to  Brazil  and  the  River  Plate,  tends  to  ex- 
tend this  kind  of  commerce.  But  for  the  backward  character  of 
Italian  agriculture,  which,  except  in  Piedmont  and  perhaps  part, 
of  Lombardy,  is  hardly  worthy  the  name  of  tillage  at  all,  Italy 
might  to-day  be  much  more  prominent  as  a  rival  of  France  in  the 
supply  of  luxurious  nations  with  dainties,  and  of  piiysically  ill- 
conditioned  countries  with  cheap  food.  With  Italy,  as  with 
France,  it  is  the  fruits  of  the  earth  which  must  form  the  solid 
basis  of  all  her  trade.  To  much  of  the  rest  of  the  workl  these 
fruits  are,  or  might  become,  delicacies  of  the  most  precious  kind  ; 
and,  therefore,  whatever  Italy  does  to  develop  agriculture  is  better 
than  the  establishment  of  a  dozen  unhealthy  factories.  In  some 
measure  the  Italian  government  may  be  said  to  see  this,  inas- 
much as  they  devote  a  considerable  amount  of  attention  to  agri- 
cultural education,  establish  depots  of  agricultural  implements  in 
various  districts  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  people,  and  so 
forth  ;  but  that  is  only  toying  with  the  great  reforms  needed, 
which  must  include  a  wide  remodelling  of  the  fiscal  burdens,  a 
new  cadastral  survey,  followed  by  a  revised  land  tax,  and  the  pro- 
tection of  the  tillers  of  the  soil  alike  from  the  extortions  of  their 
do-nothing  landlords  and  the  robberies  of  the  brigand.  Recent 
letters  from  Italy  have  showm  the  Italians  to  be  morbidly  sensitive 
to  this  last  subject ;  and  the  curious  vanity  which  they  have  dis- 
played about  their  rights  and  liberties  is  not  pleasant.  For  cer- 
tainly this  brigand  question  is  more  vital  to  the  true  settlement  and 
prosperity  of  southern  Italy  than  almost  any  other.  Until  the 
nefarious  robbers  are  extirpated,  and  the  so-called  upper  classes 
of  the  towns  —  the  remnant  of  a  debased  and  corrupt  nobility  — 
prevented  from  aiding  and  abetting  them  in  their  depredations, 
Italy  cannot  advance  as  an  agricultural  nation.     Her  peasantry, 


!F^ 


p^ 


280 


SELECTIONS. 


I'  ■■:  I  • 


•l\ 


unable  to  cultivate  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  citron  in  peace, 
must  remain,  over  almost  half  the  land,  de^aaded,  stupid,  and 
wasteful.  Ii'stead  of  struttinj^  ahout,  talkinj;-  of  national  di<j^nity, 
therefore,  Italian  statesmen  would  do  well  (juietly  to  set  about  the 
task  of  makinjj;  each  iiian's  life  and  property  seciu'c  throu<jh  the 
lenjifth  and  breadth  of  the  land.  Uidess  they  do  so,  their  work 
may  one  day  be  partially  luulone,  and  the  country,  ill-taxed  atid 
overtaxed,  poor  and  vexed  by  thieves  and  priests,  may  see  itself 
outstripped  on  every  hand.  In  vine-j^rowinij^  now  it  cannot  for  a 
moment  compete  with  France  or  Spain,  hardlv  with  (ireece  ;  in- 
deed, but  for  the  dishonest  trade  with  France  in  bad  wines,  used 
for  adulteration,  the  export  wine  trade  of  the  mainland  would  be 
of  hardly  any  value  at  all,  and  no  Italian  wine  is  known  widely 
in  England  except  the  Sicilian  Alarsala.  If  she  does  not  take 
care  her  silk  trade  will  be  in  like  danger  from  the  competition  of 
our  Australian  colonies,  as  well  as  from  that  of  China  antl  Japan. 
Italy  has  done  much  ;  but  what  she  has  done  only  brinj^s  into 
most  startling  relief  all  that  she  has  to  do.  And,  latterly,  not  the 
taritl'only,  but  several  acts  of  internal  administration,  show  signs 
of  retrogression  rather  than  progress,  which  the  best  friends  of 
Italy  must  lament  over.  Her  apathetic  deputies  are  far  too  dis- 
posed to  shirk  their  duties,  and  would  do  better  to  display  the 
fire  and  hot-headedness  of  the  French  Assembly  than  the  selfish 
absenteeism  now  so  common,  which  make  the  Sardinian  again 
begin  to  think  that  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  aflairs  of  Lom- 
bardy  ;  the  Lombard  inditVerent  to  what  interests  Venice  ;  and  all 
the  North  together  agree  in  looking  with  something  like  cold  dis- 
like on  the  troubles  of  Sicily  and  the  South.  Ministers,  aided  by 
such  a  Parliament,  are  hardly  to  be  blamed  if  they  sometimes  go 
backwards  in  their  attempt  to  keep  the  State  solvent ;  and  not  the 
least  unsatisfactory  feature  is  the  little  help  they  get  from  the  king, 
who,  but  for  his  family,  might  ere  now  have  ruined  all  the  fair 
prospect. 

Reverting  to  the  position  of  Italy  as  preeminently  an  agricultu- 
ral country,  I  may  enumerate  a  few  of  the  clogs  which  prevent 
her  progress  in  this  direction.  The  reestablishment  of  the  grist 
tax  was,  for  example,  a  distinctly  retrograde  movement.  It  costs 
the  nation,  directly  and  indirectly,  perhaps  five  times  as  much  as 
it  yields.  The  mere  irritation  to  which  the  millers  who  grind 
the  corn  and  those  who  own  it  are  alike  subject  must  be  very  dis- 
piriting, and  check  agricultural   progress.     Again,  Italy  copies 


TIIK    KKCKNT    TROdRKSS    OK    ITAl.V 


•Si 


1   111  peace, 
stupid,  and 
lal  (lij^nity, 
.'t  about  tlio 
lirou<j^h  the 
their  work 
l-taxed  atid 
ly  see  itself 
anuot  tor  a 
Lireece  ;  in- 
.viiies.  used 
;1  would   be 
)wn  widely 
lis  not  take 
n  petition  of 
and  Japan, 
brinj^s  into 
•rly,  not  the 
show  signs 
>t  friends  of 
far  too  dis- 
display  the 
the  selfish 
nian  again 
s  of  Lom- 
ice  ;  and  all 
e  cold  dis- 
s,  aided  by 
Tjetimes  go 
lid  not  the 
m  the  king, 
[ill  the  fair 

agricultu- 
ch  prevent 
f  the  grist 
It  costs 
IS  much  as 
who  grind 
)e  very  dis- 
aly  copies 


French  fashions  ;»  good  deal  in  the  manner  of  her  taxation  :  and 
we  find  all  tlie  array  of  succession  duties,  mortmain  dues, 
stamps,  taxes  on  locomotion,  licenses,  and  such  like,  in  full  s\v;i\ . 
Some  of  thein  are  wise  and  fair  enougii,  and  might  bear  increas- 
ing, were  their  incidence  fairly  distributed  ;  but  main  of  them 
are  obstructive  and  injurious  to  the  prosperous  growth  of  the 
national  wealth.  Italy  also  has  her  tobacco  monopoly,  on  the 
security  of  which  she  raised  a  loan  for  £9,500,000  in  1S6S,  and  who 
shall  say  that  it  is  not  hurtf'ul  to  her  true  interests?  Mut  of  wider 
scope  for  evil,  almost  unproductive  as  they  are,  we  must  charac- 
terize the  export  duties  now  levieil  on  many  articles  of  vital  im- 
portance to  Italy.  These  duties  have,  like  those  on  imports, 
been  increased  in  recent  years  under  the  plea  of  necessity,  and 
now  act  as  a  serious  barrier  on  free  export.  A  low  customs  duty 
on  expoits  may  do  more  harm  than  a  higher  one  on  imports, 
because  it  cripples  the  nation  in  rompetition  directly,  and,  as  it 
were,  at  the  sources  of  its  life;  and  no  country  is  so  exclusively 
possessed  of  advantages  in  the  production  of  any  particular  article 
as  to  be  safe  under  such  hindrances.  The  liberal  Sardinian 
customs  law  of  1854  ^^'^^  much  inveighed  against  at  tlie  time  it 
came  into  force,'  and  when  its  benefits  were  spread  partially  over 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  the  manufacturing  classes  looked 
as  usual  for  ruin.  Of  course  no  such  ruin  took  place.  On  the 
contrary,  Sardinia  prospered  then,  and  Italy  has  prosperetl  always 
in  proportion  to  the  liberality  of  her  commercial  policy  ;  and  if 
many  branches  of  her  agricultural  industry  stagnate  now,  it  is  be- 
cause, apart  from  general  causes  afiecting  all  trade,  she  has  gone 
backwards  in  her  fiscal  laws.  Her  small  manufactures  have 
ever  been  benefited  by  the  lowering  of  her  taritl".  After  the  pass- 
ing of  the  liberal  import  tarifl',  the  import  of  raw  cotton  rose 
from  an  average  of  about  6,500.000  lbs.,  to  over  17,000.000  lbs., 
and  in  other  respects  home  industries  such  as  these  were  bene- 
fited. What  has  thus,  as  always,  proved  true  in  the  case  of  imports 
holds  good  with  still  greater  force  in  regard  to  exports,  because  a 
tax  on  production  is  of  all  taxes  the  most  wasteful.  Make  bread 
dear  and  you  make  life  hard  ;  and  in  like  manner  put  a  barrier 
between  the  tiller  of  the  soil  and  a  free  market  in  any  raw  prod- 
uce, and  you  strike  at  the  root  of  the  entire  national  prosperity. 
7.^his  is,  unfortunately,  what  Italy  has  in  no  small  measure  done 

>  Mr.  Ilerries'  Report,  p.  589,  et  seq. 


•III 


I 


m 


i  ■ 


'H., 


k'»» 


232 


SELECTIONS. 


by  lier  {jrain  taxes,  her  grist  tax,  ami  lier  vexations,  barren  export 
Unties,  to  which  she  has,  in  her  special  treaty  with  France,  lately 
made  larj^e  additions.  Let  her  take  a  lesson  fiom  the  policy  of 
her  greatest  statesman  and  repeal  these,  and  she  will  have  done 
more  to  stimnlate  agriculture  than  all  lier  schools  and  exhibitions 
ever  can  do.  On  the  whole,  agriculture  may  be  pronounced 
now  more  biu'dcned  than  manufactures,  since  the  recent  tinkering 
at  the  general  taritVhas,  in  various  ways,  increased  the  pressure  on 
this,  the  all-important  source  of  her  prosperity.  I  will  give  below 
Mr.  I  Jerries' figures,  comparing  the  present  export  duties  charged 
on  a  few  of  the  principal  articles,  with  those  in  force  in  1863  and 
1864,  which  was  the  period  when  the  taritV  was  lowest.'  Hard 
necessity  may  be  pleaded  for  this  backward  movement,  as  for 
that  in  the  import  duties ;  but  no  such  plea  can  be  admitted  for  a 
moment,  inasmuch  as  taxation  of  this  kind  tends  to  keep  agricult- 
ure, and  all  that  depends  on  it,  primitive  and  unproductive. 
Therefore  this  policy  does  also,  and  necessarily,  lessen  the  tax- 
paying  power  of  the  community  and  the  coherence  of  the  young 
State.  The  whole  fiscal  system  of  Italy  thus  requires  to  be  re- 
modelled, special  favoritism  in  tariffs  done  away  with,  and  the 
duties  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  levied  with  as  little  irk- 
someness  as  possible  on  the  articles  that  can  bear  a  tax  with  the 
least  injury  to  the  country.  Till  this  is  done  the  trade  of  Italy 
will  not  grow  as  it  ought  to  do  now  in  the  directions  which 
nature  has   marked  out  for  it,  and  I  will  even  say  that  the  con- 

1  ITALIAN  EXPORT  DUTIES. 

On  August  I,  1863.  1S77. 
Lira.    Cents.        Lira.    Cents. 

I..inic,  per  hectolitre free.  i  lo 

Inline,  per  bottle "  o  06 

Olive  oil,  per  loo  kilojr. o           33  i  10 

Volatile  oil,  per  100  kilog free.  3  30 

Lemon  juice,  per  100  kilog "  J"  '« 

I  I  10 

Extract  of  aloes,  per  100  kilog •'  3  30 

Oranges  and  lemons,  per  100  kilog "  0  38 

Moat,  fresh  or  salted,  per  100  kilog '•  3  30 

Cheese,  per  100  kilog ••  ■                  ^  ^g 

Bulls  and  oxen,  per  head "  S  So 

Hides  and  skins,  per  100  kilog "  2  20 

Wool,  per  100  kilog "  6  60 

Silk,  raw,  per  100  kilog "  38  50 

Silk,  waste,  per  100  kilog "  8  50 

Unspecified  dried  fruits,  per  100  kilog •'  i  10 

Almonds,  per  100  kilog.        .......  "  I  '  ^ 

'  I  30 

Report,  p.  S99. 


1 


TIIK    KKCKNT    PROGRESS    OF    HAI.V 


283 


ire II  export 
nice  lately 
le  ])()licy  of 

have  (lone 
exhibitions 
;)ronouncet! 
it  tinkering 
pressure  on 

give  below 
ies  charged 
In  1863  and 
est.'  Hard 
lent,  as  for 
nittcd  for  a 
ep  agricult- 
iproductivc. 
en  the  tax- 
if  the  young 
es  to  be  re- 
ith,  and  the 
s  little  irk- 
:ax  with  the 
ade  of  Italy 

ions  which 

at  the  con- 


li.       1S77. 

Lira.  Cents. 

I  10 

0  06 

1  10 


38 


p.  P-  S99. 


20 

•7 


30 

2S 


40 

SO 
20 
60 
SO 
SO 
10 

6S 
30 


solidation  of  the  races  which  inhabit  the  peninsula  cannot  be 
held  assured  while  their  free  development  is  in  this  manner  for- 
bidden. 

We  may,  then,  I  think,  put  aside  all  fear  both  tliat  Italy  will  be- 
come a  rival  to  ICnglaiul  in  any  of  her  important  branches  of  manu- 
facture, and  that,  once  unfettered,  she  will  cease  to  be  a  progres- 
fjive  customer.  The  character  of  the  trade  between  the  two 
countries  may  vary  in  some  measure,  and  the  competition  of 
other  countries  may  grow,  in  certain  directions,  more  etfective  ; 
but  I  d(t  not  think  that  these  will  cause  our  Italian  trade  to  grow 
less  ill  bulk  or  value,  and  a  liberal  well-organi/.ed  and  classilled 
tariff  in  Italy  would.  I  am  sure,  make  it  year  by  year  greater,  to 
the  benelit  of  both  countries. 

But  there  is  another  direction  in  which  I  think  Italy  may  not 
only  rival   us,   but  become  in  a  gieat  degree,  and  within  well- 
defined    limits,  a   monopolist,   if   she  goes    on   as   she    has    done 
these  last   dozen   years.      Her  geographical  position   peculiarly 
fits  her   to  become   again    the   distributing   and    carrying   mari- 
time nation  for  Central  Europe  and  the   Levant.     I  tlo  not  dream 
of  a  revived  Venice,     ^''enice    may  indeed  flourish    again  in   a 
modest  way,   but  not  as    a  great  port  and  mart  for  the   civilized 
world.     I   mean,  rather,  that  the   sea-borne  trade  of  Italy  and  of 
the  neighbors  of  Italy  along   the  Greek   archipelago,    in  Egypt 
and  Syria,  and  possibly  even  in  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Danube, 
seems  likely  to  be  carried  on  more  and  more  in  Italian  ships,  and 
that  her  merchant  marine  may  in   time  come  to  be  no  mean  rival 
cf  that  of  England  in  those  regions  of  the   South  and  East.     The 
progress  of  Italian  shipping  since  the  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom is  evidence  that  in  this  direction  she  has  already  taken  con- 
siderable strides.     Italian  vessels  not  only  nearly  monopolize  the 
coasting    trade  of  the   Adriatic    and    Mediterranean   ports  near 
her  borders,  but  the  Rubattino  line  of  ocean  steamers,    sailing 
from  Genoa  and   other  ports,  compete  successfully  '/ith  the  Aus- 
trian  Lloyd's  and  the  French  Messagerie  Maritime  lines   in  the 
Eastern  seas,  while  two  other  important  line«   the  Florio  and  the 
Pierano,  are  fast  sweeping  into  Italian  hands  the  heaviest  share 
of  the  trade  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Levant.     Moreover,  the 
fact  that  our  own  mail  company,  the  once   unrivalled  Peninsular 
and  Oriental,  is  compelled  to  make  a  depot  at  Brindisi,  is  itself 
a  sign  of  change  in  the  position  of  the  Eastern  trade.    As  yet,  this 
depot  may  be  said  to  exist  only  for  the  convenience  of  overland 


• 


i 

^'^ 

284 


SELECTIONS. 


passcti<;cis  mid  fast  mails,  but  <^oo(ls  will  lie  sure  to  follow  in 
time  this  overland  route  to  some  extent,  and  a  certain  portion  of 
the  carryinsj^  trade  of  Eiif^land  become  diverted  to  Italy.  Tlie 
vSuez  Canal  has  hitherto  been  almost  an  I*^n^lish  water-way,  and 
will,  no  doubt,  lonj^  continue  to  be  useil  in  a  predominatin<j 
de<^ree  by  Enj^lish  ships ;  but  it  obviously  makes  competition  by 
a  country  situated  as  Italy  is  much  easier  than  it  was  before,  and 
that  competition  is  now  felt,  fostered  as  it  is  by  the  postal  sub- 
sidies which  the  Italian  j^overnment,  in  imitation  of  our  own, 
jifives  to  the  Rubattino  company.  Lookin<j  at  the  map,  we  see 
tiiat  the  harbors  of  Italy  are,  as  it  were,  placed  directly  in  the 
wav  of  ships  cominj^  westward  throu<^h  the  Canal,  and  the 
Asiatic  trade  which  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  passajj^e  threw  into 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  the  Portuj^uese,  and  tlie  En<ilish,  to  the 
ruin  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  may  not  unlikely  tend  now  to  revert 
in  some  measure  to  its  old  channels.  Steam,  no  doubt,  neutral- 
izes the  altered  circumstances  somewhat,  but  not  altoj^ether. 
Once  let  Central  Europe  get  consolidated  into  peaceful  com- 
munities, Turkey  become  pacified  or  obliterated  as  a  separate 
State,  to  be  replaced  by,  at  worst,  less  devastating  governing 
agencies,  and  we  may  expect  the  trade  of  Italy  as  a  common 
carrier  on  the  seas  to  be  greatly  extended  in  that  quarter.  The 
cotton  mills  which  she  possesses,  or  that  may  exist  in  Austria, 
Hungary,  and  Bavaria,  are  likely  to  draw  their  supplies  of  In- 
dian cotton  direct  from  tlie  ports  of  shipment,  or  by  Italian  ships, 
almost  direct,  instead,  as  heretofore,  through  England.  Marts 
for  the  raw  produce  of  India  and  China  are  thus  not  unlikely  to 
spring  up  in  Genoa  and  Leghorn,  if  not  in  Venice  and  Naples, 
just  as  a  wool  mart  is  now  rising  into  importance  at  Antwerp  ; 
and  London  will  then  no  longer  occupy  the  exclusive  position 
which  the  wars  and  follies  of  her  neighbors  have  maintained  her 
in  for  so  long. 

Nor  need  Italy  halt  with  the  Eastern  trade.  Her  connections 
with  the  Brazils  and  South  America,  as  well  as  with  the  United 
States  and  the  islands  in  the  Spanish  Main,  are  extending,  though 
comparatively  insignificant  now,  and,  unless  emigration  from  her 
shores  ceases,  are  likely  to  extend,  for  a  large  Italian  population 
is  now  scattered  over  the  fairest  regions  of  South  America. 

Therefore,  although  I  do  not  think  that,  as  manufacturers,  we 
have  much  cause  to  look  on  Italy  with  any  dread,  as  a  competitor 
for  a  portion  of  the  European  carrying  trade,  which  has  been  so 


IIIK    F'IKCKNT    PROGRKSS    OK    ITAI.V. 


285 


)  follow  in 
1  portion  of 
taly.  The 
:r-\vay,  and 
(l<)niinatiii<; 
ipctition  by 
before,  and 

postal  sub- 
'  our  own, 
ap,  we  see 
ectly  in  the 
1,  and  the 
:  threw  into 
lish,  to  the 
w  to  revert 
bt,  nentral- 

altoji^ether. 
iceful   com- 

a  separate 

governinj^ 
a  common 
irter.     The 

in  Austria, 
ies  of  In- 
ian  ships. 
Marts 

unlikely  to 
d  Naples, 

Antwerp  ; 

ve  position 

itained  her 

onnections 
the  United 
ng,  though 
n  from  her 
jopnlation 
inerica. 
turers,  we 
competitor 
as  been  so 


nd. 


long  in  our  hands,  in  all  its  most  valuable  departments,  I  think 
we  have  good  reason  to  have  misgivings.  Italy  is,  in  my  opinion, 
destined  to  make  a  more  marked  impression  on  t»ur  monopoly  in 
her  own  immediate  neigiiborhood  than  almost  any  otiier  ICuropean 
nation,  and  may  yet  become  a  far-reaching  rival.  Even  at  present 
Italy  stands  forward  amongst  the  nations  of  the  world  as  a  great 
ship-owning  nation.  The  oidy  European  country  that  is  ahead  of 
her  besides  ourselves  is  Norway,  which  has  always  been  promi- 
nent with  its  seafaring  population,  who  have  nuich  of  th(?  carrying 
trade  of  Germany,  Russia,  and  Denmark  in  their  hands.  Year 
by  year,  imtil  the  last  two  vcars,  when  tlepressed  trade  has  pro- 
duced some  slackening,  the  tonnage  of  foreign  vessels  entering  our 
ports  has  been  on  the  increase,  and  of  this  increase  Italy  bears  its 
full  share. 

We  must  accept  Italian  competition  on  the  sea  as  a  factor  of 
growing  importance,  therefore,  and,  instead  of  being  jealous  of  it, 
seek  to  utilize  it  where  it  can  serve  our  ends,  just  as  we  allow 
other  countries  to  use  our  siiipping  for  theirs.  There  must  be  free 
trade  in  ship  freights  as  in  everything  else,  and  in  the  meantime 
we  need  have  no  fear  that  Italy  will,  for  a  long  time  to  come, 
drive  us  from  the  markets  for  our  manufactures,  if  ever  she  does 
it.  While  her  budgets  show  an  annual  deficit,  while  her  paper 
currency  is  always  at  a  discount  which  seldom  sinks  much  below 
ten  per  cent.,  while  her  population  remains  pastoral,  and  while 
her  internal  administration  is  but  half  organized,  and  her  taxation 
oppressive,  she  cannot  run  far  in  the  race  with  us,  or  with  any 
manufacturing  country  ;  and  for  ourselves,  free  trade  is,  after  all, 
our  great  stronghold.  When  we  recognize  how  far  behind  us  in 
this  respect  all  other  nations  yet  are,  we  may  be  easy  in  our  minds, 
provided  always,  of  course,  we  continue  to  work  as  heretofore. 
Free  trade  will  do  nothing  for  a  nation  of  sloths.  At  present,  I 
see  no  signs  anywhere  that  other  couiitries  are  in  the  least  likely 
to  be  more  diligent  than  we  are.  Italy,  at  all  events,  gives  no 
such  indication,  and  against  her  competition  we  can  not  only  pit 
superior  and  freer  industry,  but  a  higher  order  of  agriculture,  a 
system  of  internal  taxation,  on  the  whole,  less  oppressive,  and 
natural  and  acquired  advantages,  such  as  it  takes  generations  to 
bring  into  play.  F'or  the  rest,  if  on  the  higii  seas  her  ships  should 
threaten  to  rival  our  own,  we  can  only  hope  that  tiie  trade  of  the 
world  will  become  large  enough  to  aftc-  d  them  plenty  to  do  with- 
out lessening  the  employment  of  ours. 


i 


It' 


w^ 


V>\ 


'         '«», 


lilt 


;  ! 


286 


SELECTIONS. 


XIV. 


THE    UNITED    STATES    IN    1880. 

THE    INCREASE    OF   POPULATION  FROM   Jjgo    TO    18S0. 

From  Walker  and  Gannett's  Report  on  the  Progress  of  the 
Nation.      Tenth  Census,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  xii-xx. 

170O. 

The  First  Census  of  the  United  States,  taken  as  of  the  first 
Monday  in  August,  179O1  under  the  provisions  of  the  second  sec- 
tion of  the  first  article  of  the  Constitution,  showed  the  population 
of  the  thirteen  States  then  existing  and  of  the  unorganized  terri- 
tory, to  he,  in  the  aggregate,  3,929,214. 

This  population  was  distributed  almost  entirely  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  extending  from  the  eastern  boundary  of  Maine  nearly 
to  Florida,  and  in  the  region  known  as  the  Atlantic  plain.  Only 
a  very  small  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States, 
not,  indeed,  more  than  five  per  cent.,  was  then  to  be  found  west  of 
the  system  of  the  Appalachian  mountains.  The  average  depth 
of  settlement,  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  coast,  was  255 
miles.  The  densest  settlement  was  found  in  Eastern  Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut,  and  about  New  York 
City,  whence  population  had  extended  northward  up  the  Hudson, 
and  was  already  quite  dense  as  far  as  Albany.  The  settlements 
in  Pennsylvania,  which  had  started  from  Philadelphia,  on  the 
Delaware,  had  extended  northeastward,  and  formed  a  solid  body 
of  occupation  from  New  York,  through  Philadelphia,  down  to 
the  upper  part  of  Delaware. 

The  Atlantic  Coast,  as  far  back  as  the  limits  of  tide-water,  was 
well  settled  at  that  time  from  Casco  Bay  southward  to  the  n  th- 
ern  border  of  North  Carolina.  In  what  was  then  the  District  of 
Maine,  sparse  settlement  extended  along  the  whole  seaboard. 
The  southern  two-thirds  of  New  Hampshire  and  nearly  all  of 
Vermont  were  covered  by  population.  In  New  York,  branching 
off'  from  the  Hudson  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  the  line  of 
population  followed  up  a  broad  gap  between  the  Adirondacks 


U.   S.    POPULATION,    1790. 


287 


and  the  Catskills,  and  even   reached  beyond  the  centre  of  the 
State,  occupvinj;  the  whole  of  the  Moliawk  valley  anil  the  country 
about  the  interior  New  York  lakes.     In  Peinisylvania  population 
had  spread  northwestward,  occupying  not  only  the  Atlantic  plain, 
but,  with  sparse  settlements,  the  region  traversed  by  the  innnerous 
parallel  ridges  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Appalachians.     The 
general  limit  of  settlement  was,   at  that  time,   the  southeastern 
edge  of  the  Alleglieny  plateau,  but  beyond  this,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers,  a  point  early  occupied  for 
military  purposes,  considerable  settlements  had  been  established 
prior  to  the  War  of  the  Revolution.     In  Virginia  settlements  had 
extended  westward  beyond  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  into  what  is  now 
West  Virginia,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Allegheny  niountains, 
though  very  sparsely.     From  Virginia,  also,  a  narrow  tongue  of 
settlement  had  petietrated  down  to  the   head  of  the   Temiessee 
river,  in  the  great   Appalachian   valley.     In  North  Carolina  the 
settlements  were  abruptly  limited  by  the  base  of  the  Appalaciiians. 
The  State  was  occupied  with  remarkable  uniformity,  except  in  its 
southern    and   central  portion,   where  population   was  compara- 
tively sparse.     In  South  Carolina,  on  the  other  hand,  there  was 
evidence  of  much  natural  selection,  apparently  with  reference  to 
the  character  of  soils.     Charleston  was  then  a  city  of  considerable 
magnitude,   and  al)out   it    was   grouped    a    comparatively    dense 
population  ;  but  all  along  a  belt   running  southwestward  across 
the  State,  near  its  central  part,  the  settlement  was  very  sparse. 
This  area  of  sparse  settlement  joined  with  that  of  Central  North 
Carolina,  and  ran  eastward  to  the  coast,  near  the  junction  of  the 
two  States.     Further  westward,  in  the  "up  country"  of  South 
Carolina,  the  density  of  settlement  w'as  noticeably  due  to  the  im- 
provement in  soil.     At  this  date  settlements  were  almost  entirely 
agricultural,  anil  the  causes  for  variation   in  their  density  were 
general  ones.     The  movements  of  population  at  this  epoch  may 
be  traced  in  almost  every  case  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  to 
facility  of  transportation  to  the  seaboard  ;  and,  as  the  inhabitants 
were  then  dependent  mainly  upon  water  transportation,  we  iind 
the   settlements  also  conforming  themselves  very   hugely  to  the 
navigable  streams. 

Outside  the  area  of  continuous  settlement,  which  we  have  at- 
tempted to  sketch,  were  found,  in  1790,  a  number  of  smaller  set- 
tlements of  greater  or  less  extent.  The  principal  of  these  lay  in 
Northern  Kentucky,  bordering  upon  the  Ohio  river,  comprising 


!l:li 


hi 


lit'. 


288 


SELECTIONS. 


an  area  of  10,900  square  miles.  Another,  in  Western  Virginia, 
lay  upon  the  Ohio  and  Kanawha  rivers,  and  comprised  750  square 
miles.  A  third,  in  Tennessee,  upon  the  Cumberland  river,  em- 
braced 1, 300  square  miles. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  were  a  score  or  more  of  small  posts, 
or  incipient  settlements,  scattered  over  what  was  then  an  almost 
untrodden  wilderness,  oUch  as  Detroit,  Vincenncs,  Kaskaskia, 
Prairie  du  Chien,  Mackinac,  and  Green  Bay,  besides  the  humble 
be<^innin<rs  of  Elinira  and  liinghampton,  in  New  York,  which, 
even  at  that  time,  lay  outside  the  body  of  continuous  settlement. 

Following  the  line  which  limits  this  great  body  of  settlement  in 
all  its  undulations,  we  find  its  length  to  be  3,200  miles.  In  this 
measurement  no  account  has  been  made  of  slight  irregularities, 
such  as  those  in  the  ordinary  meanderings  of  a  river  which  forms 
the  boundary  line  of  population  ;  but  we  have  traced  all  the  ins 
and  outs  of  this  frontier  line,  which  seem  to  indicate  a  distinct 
change  in  the  settlement  of  the  country  for  any  cause,  whether  of 
progression  or  of  rcti'ogression.  The  area  of  settle^nent,  thus,  is  the 
area  embraced  between  the  frontier  line  and  the  coast,  diminished 
by  such  uns  -ttled  areas  as  may  lie  within  it,  and  increased  by 
such  as  lie  without  it.  These  are  not  susceptible  of  very  accurate 
determination,  owing  to  the  fact  that  our  best  maps  are,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  incorrect  in  boundaries  and  areas;  but  all  the  accu- 
racy required  for  our  present  purpose  can  be  secured.  The 
settled  area  of  1790,  as  indicated  by  the  line  traced,  is  226,085 
square  miles.  The  entire  body  of  continuously  settled  area  laj' 
between  31°  and  45°  north  latitude  and  67°  and  83°  west 
longitude. 

Outside  of  this  body  of  continuous  settlement  are  the  smaller 
areas  mentioned  above,  whicii,  added  to  the  main  body  of  settled 
area,  give  as  a  tc)tal  239,935  square  miles,  the  aggregate  popu- 
lation being  3,929,214,  and  the  average  density  of  settlement  16.4 
to  the  square  m'le. 

In  1790  the  District  of  Maine  belonged  to  Massachusetts. 
Georgia  comprised  not  only  the  present  .State  of  that  name,  but 
nearly  all  of  what  are  now  the  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
The  States  of  Kentuckv  ami  Tennessee  were  then  known  as  the 
"  Territory  south  of  the  Ohio  river,"  and  the  present  States  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  part  of  Minne- 
sota, as  the  "  Territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  river."  Spain 
claimed  possession  of  what  is  now  Florida,  with  a  strip  along  the 


n 


u.  s.  I'oruLATiox,  1800. 


•89 


southern  Uorder  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  all   of  the  region 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

An  inspection  of  the  maps  relating  to  the  earlier  census  years 
will  show  that  the  progress  of  population  westward  across  the 
Appalaciiian  system  has  taken  place,  in  tlie  main,  along  four 
lines.  Tiie  nortiiernmost  of  these,  which  was  tiie  tirst  to  he  de- 
veloped, runs  through  Central  New  York,  folK)wing  up,  gen- 
erally, the  Mohawk  river.  This  line  has,  throughout  our  history, 
been  one  of  the  principal  courses  of  population  in  its  westward 
flow.  The  second  crosses  Southern  Peimsvlviuiia,  Western  Mary- 
land, and  Northern  \'irginia,  parallel  to  and  along  the  coursj  of 
the  Upper  Potomac.  The  third  rims  tiirougli  Virginia,  passing 
southwestward  down  the  great  Appalachian  vallev,  crossing 
thence  over  into  Kentucky  and  Teimessee.  South  of  this,  the 
principal  movement  westward  has  been  around  the  end  of  tlie 
Appalachian  chain,  through  Georgia  and  Alabama. 


11 


INOO. 


At  the  Second  Census,  that  of  1800,  the  frontier  line,  as  it  ap- 
pears on  the  map,  has  been  rectified,  so  that  while  it  embraces 
283,208  s'juare  miles,  it  describes  a  course,  when  measured  in 
the  same  manner  as  that  of  1790,  of  only  3,800  lineal  miles. 
The  advancement  of  this  line  has  taken  place  in  every  direction, 
though  in  some  parts  of  the  country  much  more  markedly  than 
in  others. 

In  Alaine  and  New  Hampshire  there  is  apparent  only  a  slight 
northward  movement  of  settlement ;  in  Vermont,  on  the  other 
hand,  while  the  settled  area  has  not  decidedly  increased,  its 
density  has  become  greater.  Massachusetts  shows  but  little 
change,  l)ut  in  Connecticut  the  settlements  along  the  lower 
course  of  the  Connecticut  river  have  appreciably  increased. 

In  New  York  settlement  has  poured  up  the  Hudson  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  and  thence,  through  the  great  natural 
roadway,  westward.  The  narrow  tonjiue  which  before  ex- 
tended  out  beyond  the  middle  of  the  State  has  now  widened  imtil 
it  spreads  from  the  southern  border  of  the  State  to  lake  Ontario. 
A  narrow  belt  of  settlement  even  stretches  down  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  along  all  the  northern  border  of  the  State,  to  Lake 
Champlain,  completely  sourrounding  what  may  be  characteristi- 
cally defined  as  the  Adirondack  region. 


} 


290 


SELECTIONS. 


In  Pennsylvania  settlements  have  extended  up  the  Sus(iuehanna 
and  jonied  the  New  York  fjroups,  leaving,  as  yet,  an  unsettled 
space  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  State,  which  comprises  a 
body  (jf  rufjfjfed  mountain  country.  With  the  exception  of  a  little 
strip  alon<:(  the  western  border  of  Pennsylvania,  the  northern  part 
of  the  State,  west  of  the  vSusciuehanna,  is  as  yet  entirely  without 
inhabitants.  Population  has  streamed  across  the  southern  half  of 
the  State,  and  settled  in  a  dense  body  about  the  forks  of  the  Ohio 
river,  at  the  present  site  of  Pittsburgh,  and  thence  extended 
slightly  into  the  State  of  Ohio. 

In   Virsinia   ^ 


dth 


rh  th 


Virginia  we  note  but  little  chang( 
general  extension  of  settlement,  with  an  increase  in  density, 
especially  along  the  coast.  North  Carolina  is  now  almost  en- 
tirely covered  with  population  ;  the  mountain  region  has, 
generally  speaking,  been  nearly  all  reclaimed  to  the  service  of 
man.  In  South  Carolina  there  is  a  general  increase  in  density  of 
settlement,  while  the  southwestern  border  lias  been  carried  down, 
until  now  the  Altamaha  river  is  its  limit.  Tiie  incipient  settle- 
ments in  Northern  Kentucky  have  sp  ^ad  soutlnvani  across  the 
State,  and  even  into  Tennessee,  forming  a  junction  with  the  little 
settlement,  noted  at  the  date  of  the  last  census,  on  the  Cumber- 
land river.  The  group  thus  formed  has  extended  down  tlie  Ohio, 
nearly  to  its  junction  with  the  Tennessee  and  the  Cuml)erland, 
and  across  the  Ohio  river  into  the  present  State  of  Ohio,  where 
we  note  the  beijinning  of  Cincinnati.  Other  infant  settlements 
appear  at  this  date.  On  the  east  side  of  the  Mississippi  river,  in 
the  present  State  of  Mississippi,  is  a  strip  of  settlement  along  the 
blurt's  lielow  the  Yazoo  bottom.  Besides  the  settlement  on  the 
present  site  of  St.  Louis,  not  at  this  time  within  the  United 
States,  is  an  adjacent  settlement  in  what  is  now  Illinois,  while  all 
the  pioneer  settlements  previously  noted  have  grown  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent. 

From  the  region  embraced  between  the  frontier  line  and  the 
Atlantic  must  be  deducted  the  Adirondack  tract,  in  Northern 
New  York,  and  the  unsettled  region  in  Northern  Pennsylvania, 
already  referred  to ;  so  that  the  actual  area  of  settlement, 
bounded  by  a  continuous  line,  is  to  be  taken  at  271,908  square 
miles.  All  this  lies  between  30°  45'  and  45°  15'  north  latitude, 
and  67°  and  88°  west  longitude. 

To  this  should  be  added  the  aggregate  extent  of  all  settlements 
lying  outside  of  the  frontier  line,  which  collectively  amount  to 


m 


U.    S.    POPULATION,    1 8 10. 


291 


squehanna 

1  unsettled 
)mpiises  a 
n  of  a  little 
ithern  part 
;ly  without 
icrn  half  of 
)f  the  Ohio 
a    extended 

there  is  a 
in    density, 

almost  en- 
•e<;;ion    has, 

2  service  of 
11  density  of 
irried  down, 
pient  settle- 
1  across  the 
ith  the  little 
he  Cumber- 
n  the  Ohio, 
tumherland, 
)hio,  where 

settlements 
pi  river,  in 
It  along  the 
lient  on  the 
the  United 
s,  while  all 
o  u  greater 

Ine  and  the 

i\  Northern 

nnsylvania, 

[settlement, 

;)o8  square 

th  latitude, 

settlements 
I  amount  to 


33,800  square  miles,  making  a  total  area  of  settlement  of  305,- 
70S  square  miles.  As  tiie  aggregate  popidation  is  5.308,483,  the 
average  density  of  settlement  is  17.4. 

The  infant  settlements  of  this  period  have  been  much  retarded 
at  many  points  by  the  opposition  of  the  Indian  tribes;  but  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  more  densely  settled  portions  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  country  these  obstacles  have  been  of  less  magnitude 
than  farther  south.  In  Georgia,  especially,  the  large  and  power- 
ful tribes  of  Creeks  and  Cherokees  have  stubbornlv  opposed  the 
progress  of  population. 

During  the  decade  just  past  Vermont,  formed  from  a  part  of  New 
York,  has  been  admitted  to  the  Union ;  also  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  formed  from  the  "  Territory  south  of  the  river  Ohio  ;  " 
Mississippi  Territory,  having,  however,  very  diflerent  boundaries 
from  the  present  State  of  that  name,  has  l)een  organized  ;  while 
the"  Territory  northwest  of  the  river  Ohio"  has  l)cen  divided 
and  Indi.ina  Territory  organized  from  the  western  portion. 


18 10. 

At  1810  we  note  great  changes,  especially  the  extension  of  the 
sparse  settlements  of  tlie  interior.  The  hills  of  Western  New 
York  have  become  almost  entirely  covered  with  population, 
which  has  spread  along  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie  well  over 
into  Ohio,  and  has  eH'ected  a  junction  with  the  previously  existing 
body  of  pojiulation  about  the  forks  of  the  Ohio  river,  leaving  un- 
settled an  included  heart-shaped  area  in  Northern  I'ennsvlvania, 
which  comprises  the  rugged  country  of  the  Appalachian  plateau. 
The  occupation  of  the  Ohio  river  has  now  become  complete, 
from  its  head  to  its  mouth,  with  the  exception  of  small  gaps  be- 
low the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee.  Spreading  in  every  direction 
from  the  ''  dark  and  bloody  ground"  of  Kentucky,  settlement 
covers  almost  the  entire  State,  while  the  southern  border  line  has 
been  extended  to  the  Tennessee  river,  in  Northern  Alabama.  In 
Georgia  settlements  are  still  held  back  bv  the  Creek  and  tiie 
Cherokee  Indians,  although  in  1802  a  treaty  with  the  former  tribe 
relieved  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  State  of  their  presence, 
and  left  the  ground  open  for  occupancy  by  the  whites.  In  Ohio 
settlements,  starting  from  the  Ohio  river  and  from  southwestern 
Pennsylvania,  have  worked  northward  and  westward,  until  they 
cover  two-thirds  of  the  area  of  the  State.     Michigan  and  Indiana 


«iil 


._^ » 


i,  i 


»M| 


k 


IT" 


1  f 

1 

i 

1 

i 

292 


SELECTIONS. 


arc  still  vii^jfin  territory,  with  the  exception  of  a  little  strip  about 
Detroit,  iti  the  former  State,  and  a  small  area  in  tiie  southwestern 
part  of  the  latter.  St.  Louis,  from  a  fur-tra(lin<^  post,  has  become 
an  important  centre  of  settlement,  population  havintf  spread 
northward  above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  and  southward  alonjj; 
the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  At  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas,  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Arkansas,  is  a  similar 
bodv  of  settlement.  The  transfer  of  the  Territory  of  Louisiana 
to  our  juristliction,  which  was  effected  in  1803,  has  broi'.t^ht  into 
the  country  a  lar<;e  body  of  population,  which  stretches  alon<i^  the 
Mississip))!  river  from  its  mouth  nearly  up  to  the  present  north- 
ern limit  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  up  the  Red  river  and  the  St. 
Francis,  in  general  occupying  the  alluvial  regions.  The  incipient 
settlements  noted  on  the  last  map  in  Mississippi  have  elVected  a 
junction  with  those  of  Louisiana,  while  in  Lower  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  a  similar  patch  appears  upon  the  Mobile  and  the  Pearl 
rivers. 

In  this  decade  large  additions  have  been  made  to  the  territory 
of  the  LJnited  States,  and  many  changes  have  been  eMected  in  the 
lines  of  interior  division.  The  purchase  of  Louisiana  has  added 
1,124.685  square  miles,  an  empire  in  itself,  to  the  L'nited  States, 
and  has  given  to  us  absolute  control  of  the  Mississippi  and  its 
navigal)le  branches.  Georgia,  during  the  same  periotl,  has  ceded 
to  the  United  States  the  portion  of  its  territory  which  now  con- 
stitutes the  larger  part  of  the  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
Tlie  State  of  Ohio  has  been  formed  from  a  portion  of  what  pre- 
viouslv  was  known  as  the  "  Territory  north  of  the  Ohio  river." 
Michigan  Territory  has  been  erected,  comprising  what  is  now  the 
lower  peninsula  of  Michigan  :  Intliana  Territory  has  been  re- 
stricted to  the  present  limits  of  tlie  State  of  that  name;  Illinois 
Territory  comprises  all  of  the  present  State  of  Illinois,  with  that  of 
Wisconsin,  and  a  part  of  Minnesota  ;  while  from  the  Louisiana 
purcliase  has  been  carved,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Territory  of 
Orleans,"  all  that  part  of  the  present  State  of  Louisiana  wliich 
lies  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  the  remainder  of  the  great  ter- 
ritorv  so  cheajily  acquired  from  France  being  known  by  the  name 
of  the  "  Louisiana  Territory." 

At  this  date  the  frontier  line  is  2,900  miles  long,  and  includes 
between  itself  and  the  Atlantic  408,895  square  miles.  From  this 
must  be  deducted  several  large  areas  of  unsettled  land  :  first,  the 
area  in   Northern  New  York,  now  somewhat  smaller  than  ten 


U.    S.    I'OrULATION,    1820. 


293 


trip  about 
itliNvcstcin 
las  become 
njr   spread 
vard  aloiifj 
lUth  of  the 
i  a  similar 
'  Louisiana 
•c)U<iht  into 
:s  aloni^  the 
sent  nortli- 
and  the  St. 
he  incipient 
J  etVected  a 
hd)ama  and 
lul  the  Pearl 

the  territory 
fected  in  the 
u  has  -added 
litcd  States, 
ippi  and    its 
d,  has  ceded 
h   now  con- 
Mississippi. 
)f  what  pre- 
hio  river." 
is  now  the 
lias  been   re- 
me;  Illinois 
,  with  that  of 
e   Louisiana 
Territory  of 
siana  wbich 
he  great  tcr- 
bv  the  name 


lud 


es 


thiif 


uid  inc 
From 
id  :  first,  the 
ller  than  ten 


years  before,  luit  still  by  no  means  inconsiderable  in  extent ; 
second,  the  heart-shaped  area  in  Northwestein  Pcmisylvania,  em- 
bracing part  of  the  Allegheny  jilateau,  in  size  about  ecpial  to  the 
unsettled  area  in  New  York  ;  third,  a  strip  along  the  central  part 
of  what  is  now  West  Virginia,  extending  from  the  I'otomac  scnith- 
ward,  taking  in  what  is  now  a  part  of  Eastern  Kentucky  and 
Southwestern  Virginia,  and  extending  nearly  to  the  border  line  of 
Teimessce  ;  fourth,  a  comparatively  small  area  in  Northern  Ten- 
nessee, upon  the  Cumberland  plateau.  These  tracts  together 
comprise  26,050  scjnare  miles,  making  the  actual  arer.  of  settlement 
included  within  the  frontier  line  382,845  scjuare  miles.  All  this 
lies  between  latitude  29°  30'  and  45°  15'  north,  and  between  the 
meridians  of  67°  and  88"^  30'  west. 

Beyond  the  frontier  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  steadily  in- 
creasing number  of  outposts  and  minor  settlements,  several  con- 
siderable bodies  of  population,  which  have  been  above  noted. 
The  aggregate  extent  of  these,  and  of  the  numerous  small  patches 
of  population  scattered  over  the  West  and  South,  may  l)e  estimated 
at  25,100  scpiare  miles,  making  the  total  area  of  settlement  in 
1810,  407,945  scjuare  miles;  the  aggregate  population  being 
7,239,881,  and  the  average  density  of  settlement  17.7  to  the 
square  mile. 

Between  1800  and  iSio  the  principal  territorial  changes  have 
been  as  follows  :  Ohio  has  been  admitted,  and  the  Territories  of 
Illinois  and  Michigan  have  been  formed  from  parts  of  Indiana 
Territory. 

ISilO. 

The  decade  from  1810  to  1820  has  witnessed  several  territorial 
changes.  Florida  at  this  date  (1820)  is  a  blank  upon  the  map. 
The  treaty  with  Spain,  which  gives  her  to  us,  is  signed,  but  the 
delivery  has  not  yet  taken  place.  Alabama  and  Mississippi, 
made  from  the  Mississippi  I'erritory,  have  been  organized  and  ad- 
mitted as  States.  Indiana  and  Illinois  appear  as  States,  with  their 
present  limits.  The  Territory  of  Louisiana  has  been  admitted  as 
a  State.  The  District  of  Maine  has  also  been  erected  into  a  State. 
Arkansas  Territory  has  been  cut  from  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Territory  of  Louisiana.  The  Indian  Territory  has  been  constituted 
to  serve  as  a  reservation  for  the  Indian  tribes.  Michigan  Ter- 
ritory has  been  extended  to  include  all  of  the  present  States  of 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  part  of  Minnesota.     That  part  of  the 


:...\^ 


IP^ 


V     I 


294 


SEL1>:CTK)NS. 


old  Louisiana  Territory  rcmaiiiinjif,  after  ciittin<^  out  Ar!;ansas  and 
Indian  Territory,  has  received  the  name  of '' Missouri  Territory." 

Aj^ain,  in  iSzo,  we  note  a  {^reat  chanj^e  in  regard  to  the  fron- 
tier line.  It  has  hecome  vastly  more  involved  and  complex,  ex- 
tendiiij^  from  Southeastern  Michi^jjan,  on  lake  St.  Clair,  south- 
westward  into  what  is  now  Missouri  ;  thence,  makinj;  a  {^reat 
semicircle  to  the  eastward,  it  sweeps  west  a«^ain  around  a  hody 
of  population  in  Louisiana,  and  ends  on  the  (jidf  coast  in  that 
State.  Tiie  area  included  hy  it  has  iniinensely  increased,  but 
much  of  this  increase  is  balanced  by  the  great  extent  of  unsettled 
land  included  within  it. 

Takinsj^  up  the  chaiifj^cs  in  detail,  we  note,  tlrst,  the  great  in- 
crease in  the  population  of  Central  New  York,  a  belt  of  increased 
settlement  having  swept  up  the  Mohawk  valley  to  Lake  Ontario, 
and  along  its  shore  nearly  to  the  Niagara  river.  A  similar  in- 
crease is  seen  about  the  forks  of  the  Ohio  river,  wliile  in  North- 
ern Pennsylvania  the  unsettled  region  on  the  Appalachian  plateau 
has  sensibly  decreased  in  size.  The  unsettled  area  in  Western 
Virginia  and  Eastern  Kentucky  has  very  greatly  diminished, 
population  having  extended  almost  entirely  over  the  Allegheny 
region  in  these  States.  The  little  settlements  about  Detroit  have 
extended  and  spread  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  until  they  have 
joined  those  in  Ohio.  The  frontier  line  in  Ohio  has  crept  north- 
ward and  westward,  leaving  only  the  northwestern  corner  of  the 
State  unoccupied.  Population  has  spread  r.orthward  from  Ken- 
tucky and  westward  from  Ohio  into  Southern  Indi;nia,  covering 
sparsely  the  lower  third  of  that  State.  The  groups  of  population 
around  vSt.  Louis,  which  at  the  time  of  the  previous  census  were 
cnjoyiug  a  rapid  growth,  have  extended  widely,  making  a  junc- 
tion with  the  settlements  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  along  a 
broad  belt  in  Southern  Illinois;  following  the  main  watercourses, 
population  has  gone  many  scores  of  miles  up  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Missouri  rivers.  The  settlements  in  Alal)ama,  which  up  to 
this  time  had  been  very  much  retarded  by  tlie  Creeks,  were 
rapidly  reenforced  and  extended,  in  consequence  of  the  victory  of 
General  Jackson  over  this  tribe  and  the  subsequent  cession  of 
portions  of  this  territory.  Immigration  to  Alabama  has  already 
become  considerable,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole  central  portion 
of  the  State,  embracing  a  large  part  of  the  region  drained  by  the 
Mobile  river  and  its  branches,  will  be  covered  by  settlements,  to 
extend  northward  and  etiect  a  junction  with  the  Kentucky  and 


U.    S.    I'OPULATION,    1830. 


295 


msas  and 
Miitoi  V." 
the  tVon- 
plcx,  cx- 
r,   south- 
f  a  <rrc'at 
\(\  a  bcxly 
st  in  that 
;ased,  but 
unsettled 

iXreat  in- 
increased 
:  Ontario, 
iinihir  in- 
in  North- 
an  plateau 
n  Western 
iminislied, 
Allegheny 
jtroit  have 
they  have 
cpt  north - 
ner  of  the 
Voni  Ken- 
covering 
population 
lusus  were 
|\g  a  junc- 
along  a 
kercourses, 
jssippi  and 
lich    up  to 
leks,  were 
victory  of 
Icession  of 
[is  already 
lal  portion 
lied  by  the 
Mnents,  to 
Itucky  and 


i 


\ 


Teiniesfice  settlements,  and  westward  across  the  lower  part  of 
Missihsi[)pi,  until  they  meet  tlie  Louisiana  settlement>.  In 
Georgia  the  Cherokees  and  the  Creeks  still  hold  seltleintnt  hack 
along   the    line    <jf    the   Altamaha    river.     There    arc,   however. 


scattered    bodies    of 


ponu 


lati 


on 


in    various  parts    of  the    State, 


though  of  small  extent.  In  Louisiana  we  note  a  gradual  in- 
crease of  the  extent  of  redeemetl  territory,  which  appears  to  have 
been  limited  almost  exactly  by  the  borders  of  the  alluvial  region. 
In  Arkansas  the  settlements,  which  we  saw  at  iSio  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Arkansas  river,  have  extended  up  the  bottoiu  lands  of  that 
river  and  of  the  Mississippi,  forming  a  body  of  poindation  of 
considerable  size,  Mesides  these,  a  small  body  is  tbund  in  the 
southern  central  jiart  of  the  State,  at  the  southeastern  base  of  the 
hill  region,  and  another  in  the  prairie  region  in  the  noithern  part. 
The  frontier  line  now  has  a  length  of  4,100  miles,  embracing 
an  area,  after  taking  out  all  the  unsettled  regions  included  be- 
tween it,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Gulf,  of  504,517  scpiare  miles,  all 
lying  between  29°  30'  and  45°  30'  north  latitude,  and  between  67' 
and  93°  45'  west  longitude.  Outside  the  frontier  line  are  souie 
bodies  of  population  on  the  Arkansas,  White,  and  Wasliita 
rivers,  in  Arkansas,  as  before  noted,  as  well  as  some  small  i)odies 
in  the  Northwest.  Computing  these  at  4,200  square  miles  in  the 
aggregate,  we  have  a  total  settled  area  of  508,717  square  miles; 
the  aggregate  population  being  9,633,822,  and  the  average  density 
of  settlement  1S.9  to  the  square  mile. 


1830. 

In  the  decade  from  1820  to  1830  other  territorial  changes  have 
occurred.  In  the  early  part  of  the  decade  the  final  transfer  of 
Florida  and  Spanish  jurisdiction  was  effected,  and  it  became  a 
Territory  of  the  United  States.  Missouri  has  been  carved  from 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  old  Missouri  Territory,  and  admitted 
as  a  State.  Otherwise  the  States  and  Territories  have  remained 
nearly  as  before.  Settlement  during  the  decade  has  again  spread 
greatly.  The  westward  extension  of  the  frontier  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  so  great  as  in  some  former  periods,  the  energies  of 
the  people  being  mainly  given  to  filling  up  the  included  areas. 
In  other  words,  the  decade  from  1810  to  1820  seems  to  have  been 
one  rather  of  blocking  out  work  which  the  succeeding  decade  has 
been  largely  occupied  in  completing. 


1^ 


flilf 


i' 


!h 


296 


SELECTIONS. 


Diirinji;  this  period  the  Indians,  especially  in  the  Son'th,  have 
still  delayed  settlement  to  a  jj;reat  extent,  'i'lie  Creeks  and  the 
Cherokees  in  (ieor<i;ia  and  Alabama,  and  the  Choetaws  and  the 
Chickasaws  in  Mississippi,  occupy  iarj^e  areas  of  the  best  por- 
tions of  those  States,  anil  successfully  resist  encroachment  upon 
their  territory.  Georp;ia,  however,  has  witnessed  a  larjjje  increase 
in  settlement  durinj^j  the  decade.  The  settlements  which  have 
heretofore  been  staid  on  the  line  of  the  Allamaha  spread  west- 
ward across  tlie  central  portion  of  the  .State  to  its  western  boun- 
dary, where  tliey  have  struck  against  the  barrier  of  the  Creek 
territory.  Stopped  at  this  point,  they  have  moved  sonthw;ird 
down  into  the  southwest  corner,  and  over  into  Florida,  extending 
even  to  the  Gulf  coast.  Westward  they  have  stretched  across  the 
southern  part  of  Alabama,  and  joined  that  body  of  settlement 
which  was  previously  formed  in  the  drainage-basin  of  the  Mol)ile 
river.  The  Louisiana  settlements  have  but  sliglitly  increased, 
and  no  great  change  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  Mississippi, 
owing  largely  to  the  cause  above  noted,  viz.,  the  occupancy  of  the 
soil  by  Indians.  In  Arkansas  the  spread  of  settlement  has  been 
in  a  strange  and  fragmentary  way.  A  line  reaches  from  Louisi- 
ana up  the  Arkansas  river  to  the  State  line,  where  it  is  stopped 
abruptly  by  the  boundary  of  the  Indian  Territory.  It  extends  up 
the  Mississippi,  and  joins  the  great  body  of  population  in  Ten- 
nessee. A  branch  extends  northeastward  from  near  Little  Rock 
to  the  northern  portion  of  the  State.  All  these  settlements  within 
Arkansas  Territory  are  as  yet  very  sparse.  In  Missouri  the  prin- 
cipal extension  of  settlement  has  been  in  a  broad  belt  up  the 
Missouri  river,  reaching  to  the  present  site  of  Kansas  City,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Kansas  river,  where  quite  a  dense  body  of  population 
appears.  Settlement  has  progressed  in  Illinois,  from  the  Missis- 
sippi river  eastward  and  northward,  covering  more  than  half  the 
State.  In  Indiana  it  has  followed  up  the  Wabash  river,  and 
thence  has  spread  until  it  reaches  nearly  to  the  north  line  of  the 
State.  But  little  of  Ohio  remains  unsettled.  The  sparse  settle- 
ments about  Detroit,  in  Michigan  Territory,  have  broadened  out, 
extending  into  the  interior  of  the  State,  while  isolated  patches 
have  appeared  in  various  other  localities. 

Turning  to  the  more  densely  settled  parts  of  the  country,  we 
find  that  settlement  is  slowl}'  making  its  way  northward  in  Maine, 
although  discouraged  by  the  poverty  of  the  soil  and  the  severity 
of  the  climate.     The  unsettled  tract  in  Northern  New  York  is 


I    I 


u.  s.  i'()i'ri,.\ri()\,  1H40. 


:!97 


(k'creasiiij^,  but  very  kIovvIv,  as  is  also  tho  caso  witli  tlu'  imscttKil 
area  in  Nortiicni  IVniisyivaiiia.  In  Western  Virj^'inia  the  un.seltUd 
tracts  are  reduced  to  almost  notliin^s  while  the  vacant  re^'ioii  in 
Eastern  Tennessee,  on  the  Cunibeilaud  plateau,  is  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing. 

At  this  date,  itS^o,  the  frontier  line  has  a  length  of  5vV>o  miles, 
and  the  aj^j^rej^Mte  area  now  embraced  between  the  ocean,  the 
Gulf,  and  the  frontier  line  is  725,406  s(|uare  miles.  Of  this,  how- 
ever, not  less  than  97,389  scpiare  miles  are  comprised  within  the 
included  vacant  tracts,  leavin<?  oidy  628,017  SM^'*"'*-'  'H'l*-'^  ''^  t'^^' 
settled  area  within  the  frontier  line,  all  of  which  lies  between 
latitude  29°  15' and  46°  15'  north,  and  l)etween  lon<ritude  67°  and 
95°  west. 

Outside  the  body  of  continuous  settlement  are  no  lon<^er  found 
larj^e  groups,  but  several  small  patches  of  population  a|)pear  in 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michi<^an,  and  Wisconsin,  a<,'i,ne;L,'atinfi; 
4,700  square  miles,  makiiiff  a  total  settled  area,  in  1830,  of  6;^2,- 
717  scjuare  miles.  As  the  a<^<i;ret^ate  population  is  12,866,020.  the 
average  density  of  settlement  is  20.3  to  the  square  mile. 


(  ,1 


IM-IU. 

During  the  decade  ending  in  1S40  the  State  of  Michigan  has 
been  created  with  its  present  limits,  the  remainder  of  the  old  ter- 
ritory being  known  as  Wisconsin  Territory.  Iowa  Territory  lias 
been  created  from  a  portion  of  Missouri  Territory,  embracing  the 
present  State  of  Iowa  and  the  western  part  of  Minnesota,  and 
Arkansas  has  been  admitted  to  the  Union. 

In  1S40  we  find,  by  examining  the  map  of  population,  that  the 
process  of  filling  up  and  completing  the  work  blocked  out  be- 
tween 1810  and  1820  has  been  carried  still  farther.  From  Geor- 
gia, Alabama,  and  Mississippi  the  Cherokee,  Creek,  Choctaw, 
and  Chickasaw  Indians,  who,  at  the  time  of  the  previous  census, 
occupied  large  areas  in  these  States,  and  formed  a  very  serious 
obstacle  to  settlement,  have  been  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory, 
and  their  country  has  been  opened  up  to  settlement.  Within  the 
two  or  three  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  removal  of  these 
Indians  the  lands  relinquished  by  them  have  been  entirely  taken 
up,  and  the  country  has  been  covered  with  a  comparatively  dense 
settlement.  In  Northern  Illinois,  the  Sac  and  Fox  and  Pottawo- 
tomie  tribes  having  been  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory,  their 


ffll  r 

'  -'  i' 

'Mr 

•MM 


•ill 


If 


I'l 


i  .1 


298 


SELECTIONS. 


country  has  been  promptly  taken  up,  and  we  Hnd  now  settlements 
carried  over  the  whole  extent  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  across 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin  as  far  north  as  the  forty-third  parallel. 
Population  ha's  crossed  the  Mississippi  river  into  Iowa  Territory, 
and  occupiesa  broad  belt  up  and  down  that  stream.  In  Missouri  the 
settlements  have  spread  northward  from  the  Missouri  river  nearly 
to  tlie  boundary  of  the  State,  and  southward  till  they  cover  most 
of  the  southern  portion,  and  make  connection  in  two  places  with 
the  settlements  of  Arkansas.  The  unsettled  area  found  in  South- 
ern Missouri,  together  with  that  in  Northwestern  Arkansas,  is  due 
to  the  hilly  and  rugged  nature  of  the  country,  and  to  the  poverty 
of  the  soil,  as  compared  with  the  rich  prairie  lands  all  around.  In 
Arkansas  the  settlements  remain  sparse,  and  have  spread  widely 
away  from  the  streams,  covering  much  of  the  prairie  parts  of  the 
State.  There  is,  besides  the  area  in  Northwestern  Arkansas  just 
mentioned,  a  large  area  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State,  com- 
prisetl  almost  entirely  within  the  alluvial  regions  of  the  St.  Fran- 
cis river,  and  also  one  in  the  southern  portion,  extending  over 
into  Northern  Louisiana,  which  is  entirely  in  the  fertile  prairie 
section.  The  fourth  unsettled  region  lies  in  the  southwest  part  of 
the  State. 

In  the  older  States  we  note  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  unsettled 
areas,  as  in  Maine  and  in  New  York.  In  Northern  Pennsylvania  the 
unsettled  section  has  entirely  disappeared.  A  small  portion  of  the 
unsettled  patch  on  the  Cumberland  plateau  still  remains.  In  south- 
ern Georgia  the  Okeefenokee  swamp  and  the  pine  barrens  adja- 
cent have  thus  far  repelled  settlement,  although  population  has 
increased  in  Florida,  passing  entirely  around  this  area  to  the  south. 
-The  greater  part  of  Florida,  however,  including  nearly  all  the 
peninsula  and  several  large  areas  along  the  Gulf  coast,  still  re- 
mains without  settlement.  This  is  doubtless  due,  in  part,  to  the 
nature  of  the  country,  being  alternately  swamp  and  hummock, 
and  in  part  to  the  hostility  of  the  Seminole  Indians,  who  still 
occupy  nearly  all  of  the  peninsula. 

The  frontier  line  in  1840  has  a  length  of  3,300  miles.  This 
shrinking  in  its  length  is  due  to  its  rectification  on  the  northwest 
and  southwest,  owing  to  the  filling  out  of  the  entire  interior.  It 
encloses  an  area  of  900,658  square  miles,  all  lying  between  latitude 
^9°  and  46°  30'  north,  and  longitude  67°  and  95°  30'  west.  The 
vacant  tracts  have,  as  noted  above,  decreased,  although  they  are 
still  quite  considerable  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas.     The  total  area 


settlements 

and  across 
rd  parallel. 
I  Territory, 
Vlissouri  the 
river  nearly 

cover  most 
places  with 
i(J  in  South- 
msas,  is  due 
the  poverty 
around.  In 
read  widely 
parts  of  the 
rkansas  just 

State,  com- 
le  St.  Fran- 
ending  over 
jrtile  prairie 
iwest  part  of 

le  unsettled 
sylvania  the 
ortion  of  the 
In  south- 
irrens  adja- 
lulation  has 
o  the  south, 
irly  all  the 
ast,  still  re- 
jart,  to  the 
hummock, 
who  still 

liles.  This 
northwest 
iiterior.  It 
een  latitude 
vest.  The 
jh  they  are 
e  total  area 


U.    S.    POPULATION,    1850. 


299 


of  the  vacant  tracts  is  95,516  square  miles.  Tiie  settled  area  out- 
side the  frontier  line  is  notably  small,  and  amounts,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, to  only  2,150  miles,  making  tiie  entire  settled  area  807,292 
square  miles  in  1840.  Tiie  aggregate  population  being  17,069,- 
453,  the  average  density  is  21.1  to  the  square  mile. 

1850. 

Between  1S40  and  1S50  the  limits  of  our  countrv  have  hccn 
further  extended  by  the  annexation  of  the  State  of  Texas  and  of 
territory  acquired  from  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo.  The  States  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Florida  have  been 
admitted  to  the  Union,  and  the  Territories  of  Minnesota,  Oregon, 
and  New  Mexico  have  been  created.  An  examination  of  the 
maps  shows  that  the  frontier  line  has  changed  very  little  during 
this  decade.  At  the  western  border  of  Arkansas  the  extension  of 
settlem  Mit  is  peremptorily  limited  by  the  boundary  of  the  Iiuhan 
Territory  ;  but,  curiously  enough  also,  the  western  boundary  of 
Missouri  puts  almost  a  complete  stop  to  all  settlement,  notwith- 
standing that  some  of  the  most  densely  populated  portions  of  tiie 
State  lie  directly  on  that  boundary. 

In  Iowa  settlements  have  made  some  advance,  moving  up  the 
Missouri,  the  Des  Moines,  and  other  rivers.  The  settlements  in 
Minnesota  at  and  alwut  St.  Paul,  which  appeared  in  1S40,  are 
greatly  extended  up  and  down  the  Mississippi  river,  while  other 
scattering  bodies  of  population  appear  in  Northern  Wisconsin.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  settlement  has  made  considerable 
advance,  especially  in  a  northeastern  direction,  towards  Green 
Bay.     In  Michigan  the  change  has  been  very  slight. 

Turning  to  the  southwest  we  find  Texas,  for  the  first  time  on 
the  map  of  the  United  States,  with  a  considerable  extent  of  settle- 
ment ;  in  general,  however,  it  is  very  sparse,  most  of  it  lying  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  and  being  largely  dependent  upon 
the  grazing  industry. 

The  included  unsettled  areas  now  are  very  small  and  few  in 
number.  There  still  remains  one  in  Southern  Missouri,  in  the 
hilly  country ;  a  small  one  in  Northeastern  Arkansas,  in  the 
swampy  and  alluvial  region  ;  and  one  in  the  similar  country  in 
the  Yazoo  bottom-lands.  Along  the  coast  of  Florida  are  found 
two  patches  of  considerable  size,  which  are  confined  to  the 
swampy  coast  regions.     The  same  is  the  case  along  the  coast  of 


■  !', 
'1? 


I '1 

li  !  i 


300 


SELECTIONS. 


Louisiana.  The  sparse  settlements  of  Texas  are  also  interspersed 
with  several  patclies  devoid  of  settlement.  In  Southern  Geori^ia 
the  large  vacant  space  heretofore  noted,  extending  also  into  North- 
ern Florida,  has  entirely  disappeared,  and  the  Florida  settlements 
have  already  reached  southward  to  a  considerable  distance  in  the 
peninsula,  being  now  free  to  extend  without  fear  of  hostile  Semi- 
noles.  the  greater  part  of  whom  have  been  removed  to  the  Indian 
Territory. 

The  frontier  line,  which  now  extends  around  a  considerable 
part  of  Texas  and  issues  on  the  Gulf  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Nueces  river,  is  4,500  miles  in  length.  The  aggregate  area  in- 
cluded by  it  is  1,005.213  square  miles,  from  which  deduction  is  to 
be  made  for  vacant  spaces,  in  all,  64,339  square  miles.  The  iso- 
lated settlements  lying  outside  this  body  in  the  western  part  of  the 
country  amount  to  4.775  square  miles. 

But  it  is  no  longer  by  a  line  drawn  around  from  the  St.  Croix 
river  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  that  we  embrace  all  the  population  of 
the  United  States,  excepting  only  a  few  outlying  posts  and  small 
settlements.  We  may  now,  from  the  Pacific,  run  a  line  around 
80,000  miners  and  adventurers,  the  pioneers  of  more  than  one 
State  of  the  Union  soon  to  arise  on  that  coast.  This  body  of  set- 
tlement has  been  formed,  in  the  main,  since  the  acquisition  of  the 
territory  by  the  United  States,  and,  it  might  even  be  said,  w'ithin 
the  last  year  (1849-50),  dating  from  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California.  These  settlements  may  be  computed  rudely  at  33,600 
square  miles,  making  a  total  area  of  settlement  at  that  date  of 
979,249  square  miles,  the  aggregate  population  being  23,191,876, 
and  the  average  density  of  settlement  23.7  to  the  square  mile. 


iseo. 

Between  1850  and  i860  the  territorial  changes  noted  are  as  fol- 
lows :  The  strip  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  south  of  the  Gila 
river  has  been  acquired  from  Mexico  by  the  Gadsden  purchase 
(1853)  ;  Minnesota  Territory  has  been  admitted  as  a  State;  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  Territories  have  been  formed  from  parts  of  Mis- 
souri Territory ;  California  and  Oregon  have  been  admitted  as 
States,  while,  in  the  unsettled  parts  of  the  CordilU^'^an  region,  two 
new  territories  (Utah  and  Washington)  have  been  formed  out 
of  parts  of  that  terra  incognita  which  we  bought  from  France  as 
a  part  of  Louisiana,  and  of  that  which  we  acquired  by  conquest 


■\H 


U.    S.    POPULATION,    i860. 


301 


from  Mexico.  At  this  date  we  note  the  first  extension  of  settle- 
ments beyond  the  line  of  the  Missouri  river.  The  march  of  set- 
tlement up  the  slope  of  the  j^reat  plains  has  befjtm.  In  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  population  is  now  found  beyond  the  97th  me- 
ridian. Texas  has  filled  up  even  more  rapidly,  its  extreme 
settlements  reaching?  to  the  looth  meridian,  while  the  <;aps 
noted  at  the  date  of  the  last  census  have  all  been  filled  l)v  popu- 
lation. The  incipient  settlements  about  St.  Paul,  in  Minnesota, 
have  grown  like  Jonah's  gourd,  spreading  in  all  directions,  and 
forming  a  broad  band  of  union  with  the  main  bodv  of  settlement 
down  the  line  of  the  Mississippi  river.  In  Iowa  settlements  have 
crept  steadily  northwestward  along  the  course  of  the  drainage, 
until  the  vState  is  nearly  covered.  Following  up  the  Missouri, 
population  has  reached  out  into  the  southeastern  corner  of  the 
present  area  of  Dakota.  In  Wisconsin  "the  settlements  have 
moved  at  least  one  degree  farther  north,  while  in  the  lf)wer  penin- 
sula of  Michigan  they  have  spread  up  the  lake  shores,  nearly 
encircling  it  on  the  side  next  Lake  Michigan.  On  the  upper 
peninsula  the  little  settlements  which  appeared  in  1S50  in  the 
copper  region  on  Keeweenavv  point  have  extended  and  increa:;ed 
greatly  in  density  as  that  mining  interest  has  developed  in  value. 
In  Northern  New  York  there  is  apparently  no  change  in  the  un- 
settled area.  In  Northern  Maine  we  note,  for  the  first  time,  a 
decided  movement  towards  the  settlement  of  its  unoccupied  ter- 
ritory, in  the  extension  of  the  settlements  on  its  eastern  and  north- 
ern border  up  the  St.  John  river.  The  unsettled  regions  in 
Southern  Missouri,  Northeastern  Arkansas,  and  Xortlnvestern 
Mississippi  have  become  sparsely  covered  by  population.  Along 
the  Gulf  coast  there  is  little  or  no  change.  There  is  to  be  noted 
a  slight  extension  of  settlement  southward  in  the  peninsula  of 
Florida. 

The  frontier  line  now  measures  5,300  miles,  and  embraces 
1,126,518  square  miles,  lying  between  latitude  28°  30'  and  47°  30' 
north,  and  between  longitude  67°  and  99°  30'  west.  From  this 
deduction  should  be  made  on  account  of  vacant  spaces,  amoiuit- 
ing  to  39%  139  square  miles,  found  mainly  in  New  York  and  along 
the  Gulf  coast.  The  outlying  settlements  beyond  the  lootii  me- 
ridian are  now  numerous.  They  include,  among  others,  a  strip 
extending  far  up  the  Rio  Grande  in  Texas,  embracing  7-475 
square  miles  (a  region  given  over  to  the  raising  of  sheep),  while 
the  Pacific  settlements,  now  comprising  one  sovereign  State,  are 


WT-l 


urn  ' 

1    ' 

it' 

J' 

■  :i 
-  '-  t 

■ 

mm 


iitll 


i 


M 


|i'  I 


!  i 


^.1 


302 


SELECTIONS. 


nearly  three  times  as  extensive  as  at  1850,  embracing  99,900 
square  miles.  The  total  area  of  settlement  in  1S60  is  thus 
1,194,754  square  miles;  the  aggreg;!te  population  is  now 
31,443,321,  and  the  average  density  of  settlement  26.3  to  the 
square  mile. 

1870. 

During  the  decade  from  1S60  to  1S70  a  numi)er  of  territorial 
changes  have  been  etVected  in  the  extreme  West.  Arizona, 
Colorado,  Dakota,  Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Wyoming 
have  been  organized  as  Territories.  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and 
Nevada  have  been  admitted  as  States.  West  Virginia  has  been 
cut  off  from  the  mother  Commonwealth  and  made  a  separate 
State. 

In  1S70  we  note  a  gradual  and  steady  extension  of  the  frontier 
line  westward  over  the  great  plains.  The  unsettled  areas  in 
Maine,  New  York,  and  Florida  have  not  greatly  diminished,  but 
in  Michigan  the  extension  of  the  lumber  interests  northward  and 
inward  from  the  Lake  Shore  has  reduced  considerably  the  unsettled 
portion.  On  the  upper  peninsula  the  settlements  have  increased 
somewhat,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  the  rich  iron  deposits 
destined  to  play  so  important  a  part  in  the  manufacturing  industry 
of  the  country. 

Settlement  has  spread  westward  to  the  boundary  of  the  State  in 
Southern  Minnesota,  and  up  the  Big  Sioux  river  in  Southeastern 
Dakota.  Iowa  is  entirely  reclaimed,  excepting  a  small  area  of 
perhaps  a  thousand  square  miles  in  its  northwestern  corner. 
Through  Kansas  and  Nebraska  the  frontier  line  has  moved 
steadily  westward,  following  in  general  the  courses  of  the  larger 
streams  and  of  the  newly  constructed  railroads.  The  frontier  in 
Texas  has  changed  but  little,  that  little  consisting  of  a  general 
westward  movement.  In  the  Cordilleran  region  settlements  have 
extended  but  slowly.  Those  upon  the  Pacific  coast  show  little 
change,  either  in  extent  or  in  density.  In  short,  we  see  every- 
where the  effects  of  the  war  in  the  partial  stoppage  of  the 
progress  of  development. 

The  settlements  in  the  West,  beyond  the  frontier  line,  have  ar- 
ranged themselves  mainly  in  three  belts.  The  most  eastern  of 
these  is  located  in  Central  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Wyom- 
ing, along  the  eastern  base  of  and  among  the  Rocky  mountains. 
To  this  region  settlement  was  first  attracted  in  1859  and  i86o  by 


acing  99,900 
1S60  is  thus 
tion  is  now 
t    26.3  to  the 


of  territorial 
it.      Arizona, 

nd  Wyoiiii'ig 
lebraska,  and 
inia  has  been 
de  a  separate 

•>{  the  frontier 
ttled  areas  in 
iminished,  but 
lorthward  and 
y  tlie  unsettled 
lave  increased 
iron  deposits 
uring  industry 

of  the  State  in 
Southeastern 
small  area  of 
stern  corner, 
e  has  moved 
of  the  larger 
he  frontier  in 

of  a  general 
tlements  have 
st  show  little 

e  see  every- 
page    of    the 

line,  have  ar- 
)st  eastern  of 

and  Wyom- 
mountains. 

and  i860  by 


U.    S.   POPULATION,    1870. 


303 


the  discovery  of  mineral  deposits,  and  has  been  retained  by  the 
richness  of  the  soil  and  by  the  abundatice  of  water  for  irrigation, 
which  have  promoted  the  agricultural  industry. 

The  second  belt  of  settlement  is  that  of  Utah,  settled  in  1S47  by 
the  Alormons  fleeing  from  Illinois.  This  community  then  dif- 
fered, and  still  ditVers,  railically  from  that  of  the  R(jcky  moun- 
tains, being  essentially  agricultural,  mining  having  been  discoun- 
tenanced from  the  first  by  the  church  authorities,  as  tending  to  till 
the  "Promised  Land"  with  Gentile  adventurers,  and  thereby  im- 
peril Mormon  institutions.  The  settlements  of  this  group,  as 
seen  on  the  map  for  1S70,  extend  from  Southern  Iilalio  southward 
through  Central  Utah,  and  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Walisatch 
range  into  Northern  Arizona.  They  consist  mainly  of  scattered 
hamlets  and  small  towns,  about  which  are  grouped  the  farms  of 
the  communities. 

The  third  strip  is  that  in  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories,  ex- 
tending from  Washington  Territory  southward  to  Soutiiern  Cali- 
fornia and  eastward  to  the  system  of  "  sinks,"  in  Western  Nevada. 
This  group  of  population  owes  its  existence  to  the  mining  ii;- 
dustry,  the  moving  cause  in  nearly  all  westward  migrations. 
Originated  in  1S49  by  a  "  stampede  "  the  like  of  which  the  world 
had  never  before  seen,  it  has  grown  by  successive  impulses  as 
new  fields  for  rapid  money-getting  have  been  developed.  Lat- 
terly, however,  the  value  of  this  region  to  the  agriculturist  has 
been  recognized,  and  the  character  of  the  occupations  of  the 
people  is  undergoing  a  marked  change. 

These  three  great  Western  groups  comprise  nine-tenths  of  the 
population  west  of  the  frontier  line.  The  remainder  is  scattered 
about  in  the  valleys  and  the  mountains  of  Montana,  Idaho,  and 
Arizona,  at  military  posts,  isolated  mining  camps,  and  on  cattle 
ranches. 

The  frontier  line  in  1870  embraces  1,178.068  square  miles,  all 
between  27°  15'  and  47°  30'  north  latitude,  and  between  67°  anti 
99°  45'  west  longitude.  From  this,  however,  deducticjn  is  to  be 
made  of  ,37,739  square  miles,  on  account  of  interior  spaces  C(jn- 
taining  no  population.  To  what  remains  we  must  add  11,810 
square  miles  on  account  of  settled  tracts  east  of  the  looth  me- 
ridian, lying  outside  of  the  frontier  line,  and  120,100  square  miles 
on  account  of  settlements  in  the  Cordilleran  region  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  making  the  total  area  of  settlement  for  1870  not 
less  than  1,272,239  square  miles,  the  aggregate  population  being 


I 


I'  ( ■ 


304 


SELECTIONS. 


38,558,371,   aiul   the   average  density  of  settlement  30.3  to  the 
square  mile. 

I88O. 

In  tracing  tlie  history  of  the  settlement  of  our  country  we  are 
now  hrought  down  to  the  latest  census,  that  of  iSSo.  During 
the  decatle  just  past  Colorado  has  been  added  to  the  sisterhood  of 
States.  The  iirst  point  that  strikes  us  in  examining  the  map 
showing  the  areas  of  settlement  at  this  date,  as  compared  with 
previous  ones,  is  the  great  extent  of  territory  which  has  been 
brought  under  occupation  during  the  past  ten  years.  Not  onh' 
has  settlement  spread  westward  over  large  areas  in  Dakota, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  thus  moving  the  frontier  line  of 
the  main  body  of  settlement  westward  many  scores  of  miles,  but 
the  isolated  settlements  of  the  Cordilleran  region  and  of  the 
Pacific  coast  show  enormous  accessions  of  occupied  territory. 

The  migration  of  farming  population  to  the  northeastern  part 
of  Maine  has  widened  the  settletl  area  to  a  marked  extend,  prob- 
ably more  than  has  been  done  during  any  previous  decade. 
The  vacant  space  in  the  Adirondack  region  of  Northern  New 
York  has  been  lessened  in  size,  and  its  limits  reduced  practically 
to  the  actual  mountain  tract.  The  most  notal)le  change,  however, 
in  New  England  and  the  Miildle  States,  including  Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana, has  beon  the  increase  in  density  of  population  and  the 
migration  to  cities,  with  the  consequent  increase  of  the  urban 
population,  as  indicated  by  the  number  and  the  size  of  the  spots 
representing  these  cities  upon  the  map.  Throughout  the  South- 
ern .Slates  there  is  to  be  noted  not  only  a  general  increase  in  the 
density  of  population  and  a  decrease  of  unsettled  areas,  but  a 
greater  approach  to  uniformity  of  settlement  throughout  the 
whole  region.  The  unsettled  area  of  tiie  peninsula  of  Florida 
has  decreased  decitledly,  while  the  vacant  spaces  heretofore  seen 
along  the  ui)per  coast  of  Florida  and  Louisiana  have  entirely 
disappeared.  Although  the  Appalachian  mountain  system  is  still 
distinctly  outlined  by  its  general  lighter  color  on  the  map,  its 
densit}'  of  population  more  nearly  approaches  that  of  the  countrv 
on  the  east  and  on  the  west.  In  Michigan  there  is  seen  a  very 
decitled  iticrease  of  the  settled  region.  Settlements  have  not  only 
surrounded  the  head  of  the  lower  peninsula,  but  they  leave  only 
a  very  small  l)ody  of  unsettled  country  in  the  interior.  In  the 
upper  peninsula  the  copper  and  the  iron  interests,  and  the  rail- 


'  u 


t  30.3  to  the 


^uutry  we  are 
S80.     During 
;  sisterhood  of 
iiing  the  map 
omparcd  with 
liich   has  been 
irs.     Not  only 
;is    in   Dakota, 
Vontier  line  of 
5  of  miles,  but 
in   and   of  the 
d  territory, 
rtheastern  part 
1  extend,  prob- 
er ious    decade. 
Northern  New 
iced  practically 
ange,  however, 
Ohio  and  Indi- 
ation    and   the 
;  of  the  urban 
ze  of  the  spots 
lout  the  South- 
increase  in  the 
;d  areas,  but  a 
hroughout    the 
ula  of  Florida 
leretofore  seen 
|i  have  entirely 
In  system  is  still 
|n  the  map,  its 
of  the  country 
is  seen  a  very 
Is  have  not  only 
liey  leave  only 
terior.     In  the 
and  the  rail- 


U.   S.    POPULATION,    1880. 


305 


roads  which  sul)ser\e  them,  have  peopled  ciuitc  a  large  extent  of 
territory.     In  Wisconsin  the  inisctlled  area   is  rapidly  decreasing 
as   railroads    stretch   their  arms  out   over   the  vacant  tracts.      In 
Miiniesota  and  in  Ivistern   Dakota  the  buiUling  of  railroads,  and 
the  dcNclopinent  of  tlie  latent  capabilities  of   this  region  in  the 
cultivation  of  wheat,  have  caused  a  rapid  tlovv  of  settlement,  and 
now  t'.ie  frontier  line  of  population,  insteail  v)f  returning  to  Lake 
^lichigan,  as    it  iWd  ten   years  ago,   meets  the  boundary  line  of 
the  British  possessions  west  of  the  97th  meridian.     The  settle- 
ments   in    Kansas   and  Nebraska   have    maile  great  strides  over 
the  plains,  reaching  at  several  points  tlie  i)oundarv  of  the  humid 
region,   so  that  tlieir  westward  extension  beyond  this  point  is  to 
be  governed  liereafter  by  tiie  siip[)ly  of  water  in  the  streams.     As 
a   natural  result,   we  see  settlements  tbllowing  these  streams   in 
long  ribbons  of  population.      In  Nebraska  these  narrow  belts  have 
reached   the  western  boundarv  of  the  State  at  two   points  :  one 
upon  the  vSonth  Platte,  and  the  other  upon  the  Republican  river. 
In   Kansas,  too,  the  settlements  have  followed  the  Kansas  river 
and  its  branches  and  the  Arkansas  nearly  to  the  western  boundarv 
of  the  State.     Texas  also  has  made  great  strides,  both  in  the  ex- 
tension of  the  frontier  line  of  settlement  and   in    the   increase   in 
the  deusitv  of  population,  due  both  to   the  building  of  railroads 
and  to  the  development  of  the  cattle,  sheej),  and  agricultural   in- 
terests.    The  heavy  p()})ulation  in  the  prairie  portions  of  the  State 
is    explained    by  the   railroads    which    now    traverse    them.     In 
Dakota,  besides  the  agricultural  region,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Territorv,  we  note  the  tbrmation  of  a  body  of  settlement  in  the 
lilack  Hills,  in  the  southwest  corner,  which,  in    1870,  was  a  jiart 
of  the  reservation  of  the  Sioux  Indians.      This  settlement  is  the 
result   of   the  discoverv  of  valuable  gold  deposits.     In   M(;ntana 
there  ajjpears  a  great  extension  of  the  settled  area,  which,  as  it  is 
mainlv  due   to  agricultural    interests,   is  found  chietly  along  the 
courses    of  the   streams.     Mining   has,    however,    played    not    a 
small  part  in  this   increase   in   settlement.     Idaho,  too,  shows  a 
decided  growth  from  the  same  causes.       The  small  settlements 
which,  in  1870,  were  located  about  Boise  City,  and  near  the  moutli 
of  the  Clearwatei",  have  now  extended  their  areas  to  many  lum- 
dreds  of  square  miles.     Tlie  settlement  in  the  soutiieastern  corner 
of  the  territorv  is  almost  purely  of  Aiormons,  anil  has  not  matle  a 
marked  increase. 

Of  all    the    States  and  Territories  of  the  Cordilleran  region 


■1 


l:^^! 


if 


1 


t: 


I  ! 


ij^iji 


306 


SELECTIONS. 


C()If>ra(lo  h:is  made  the  <freatcst  stride  diirinfr  the  decade.  From 
a  narrow  strip  of  settlement,  extending  alonjjf  tiie  immediate 
base  of  the  Rocl<y  Mountains,  the  belt  has  increased  so  that  it 
comprises  the  whole  mountain  reijion,  besides  a  great  extension 
outward  upon  the  jilains.  Tliis  increase  is  the  result  of  the  dis- 
covery of  very  extensive  and  very  rich  mineral  dejjosits  about  Lead- 
ville,  producing  a  '•  stampede"  second  only  to  that  of  '49  and  '50  to 
California.  Miners  iiave  spread  over  the  whole  mountain  region, 
till  every  range  and  ridge  swarms  with  them.  New  Mexico  shows 
but  little  change,  although  the  recent  extension  of  railroads  in  the 
Territory  and  the  opening  up  of  mineral  resources  will,  no  doubt, 
in  the  near  future,  add  larj^ely  to  its  population.  Arizona,  too, 
although  its  extent  of  settlement  has  increased  somewhat,  is  bnt 
just  commencing  to  enjoy  a  period  of  rapid  development,  owing 
to  the  extension  of  railroads  and  to  the  suppression  of  hostile 
Indians.  Utah  presents  us  with  a  case  dissimilar  to  any  other  of 
the  Territories,  —  a  case  of  steady,  regular  growth,  due  almost 
entirely  to  its  agricidtural  capabilities,  as  was  noted  above.  This 
is  i]ue  to  the  policy  of  the  Mormon  Church,  which  has  steadily 
discountenanced  mining  and  speculation  in  all  forms,  and  has 
encouraged  in  every  way  agricultural  pursuits.  Nevada  shows  s^ 
slight  extension  of  settlement,  due  mainly  to  the  gradual  increase 
in  the  agricultural  interest.  The  mining  industry  is  probabl}'  not 
more  flourishing  at  present  in  this  State  than  it  was  ten  years  ago, 
and  the  population  dependent  upon  it  is,  if  anything,  less  in 
number.  In  California,  as  the  attention  of  the  people  has  be- 
come devoted  more  and  more  to  agricultural  pursuits,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  mining  and  cattle  industries,  we  note  a  tendency  to 
a  more  even  distribution  of  the  inhabitants.  The  population  in 
some  of  the  mining  regions  has  decreased,  while  over  the  area  of 
the  great  valley,  and  in  the  fertile  valleys  of  tlie  Coast  ranges,  it 
has  increased.  In  Oregon  the  increase  has  been  mainly  in  the 
section  east  of  the  Cascade  range,  a  region  drained  by  the  Dcs 
Chutes  and  the  John  Day  rivers,  and  by  the  smaller  tributaries 
of  the  Snake,  —  a  region  which,  with  the  corresponding  section  in 
Washington  Territory,  is  now  coming  to  the  front  as  a  wheat- 
producing  district.  In  most  of  the  settled  portions  here  spoken 
of  irrigation  is  not  necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  crops,  and 
consequently  the  possibilities  of  the  region  in  the  direction  of  agri- 
cultural development  are  very  great.  In  Washington  Territory, 
which  in  1870  had  been  scarcely  touched  by  immigration,  we  find 


icade.     From 
le   immediate 
led  so  that  it 
eat  extension 
lit  of  the  dis- 
s  about  Lcad- 
'49  and  '50  to 
Mitain  rei^ion, 
►lexico  shows 
ihoads  in  the 
ill,  no  doubt, 
A.rizona,  too, 
.'what,  is  but 
imeiit,  owing^ 
)n   of   hostile 
any  other  of 
,  due  almost 
ibovc.      This 
has  steadily 
ms,   and    has 
/ada  shows  a 
Jiial  increase 
probably  not 
en  years  ago, 
ling,  less  in 
ople  has  be- 
s,  at  the  ex- 
tendency  to 
opulation  in 
r  the  area  of 
ist  ranges,  it 
lainly  in  the 
by  the  Des 
r  tributaries 
ig  section  in 
as  a  w heat- 
here  spoken 
'  crops,  and 
ition  of  agri- 
n  Territory, 
tion,  we  find 


U.   S.    ropULATION.    1880.  30^ 

C»l"ml, ,t„  the  valle vs  o    the  W  n™w  ';"  '""""'  "''  ""■' 

rivers  a„,I  the  „roat  nlX  of  ,       r         ,    ^"""  •■""'  "'^-  «""l^<-- 

.he  fi,cih-ties  for'rail  „['■     tit.  .  :    U^T    "'  '"""""  "'"'"''  ''^ 
cltivatio,,.  "  ■""'  ''y  "'^  R'-'-'-"  P'-'-fl's  of  wheat 

The  Ienj;th  of  the  frontrer  hiip  in  ,«a„  • 
-ea  ,-„cl„„e.,  between  the  f™  .  h,e  ^e  Ath'f  "'^^  ^"^ 
coast,  a,Kl  the  northern  bonn,la,y  i  ,'0"  'i^""""^  ""''.'^'^  «"'f 
between  z6'  an.l  49-  north  lati.u  le  am  t;^'*'  "'"'"V""'''  '>'"f 
tncle.  from  this  ,nn<>  h„  1  .  ^  "''  '°^  «'^'"  '""Ki- 
lows:_  "■  ''"  ''"'"""'•  f"  '"«'="Iecl  areas,  as  f^l- 


Maine    . 

New  York 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Florida 


Square  Miles, 

12,000 

2,200 

10,200 

10,200 

34'Ooo 
20,800 


-Mn,a.ota,  of  89,400  square  ,„i,es,  leaving  ,,309.545  square 
Corcm'leL";':;,™  tir'thf  'r-'-V--  °f-«l--n.  i„  the 

coa.t,  which  aS::;:;!  *,  a~:  Tz::r ""  '"f  "^ 

making  a  total  settle,!  area  o?  '  ^60  .1  '^  "''T"  '"''"• 
population  is  50, 1 «?Si  Z,,  ''5^5'57°  ^'l""e  miles.  The 
.0  the  square  m"^  "  ^'  ''  ">'«^"g'^  <"'^'«ily  of  settlement  3, 


m 


308 


SELECTIONS. 


T//E    FACTOR  y    SYSTEM. 


From  Wright's   Rkport  on  the   Factory  System  of  the  United 
States,  Tenth  Census,  Vol.  II.,  vi\  537-541. 


At  the  time  of  the  ajifitation  of  their  independence  the  desire  to 
phuit  the  mechanic  arts  in  this  country  hecame  ahnost  a  passion 
—  certainly  a  feature  of  the  patriotism  of  the  ihiy.  Hon.  Edward 
Everett,  in  an  address  on  American  manufactures,  in  New  York, 
in  1 83 1,  stated  :  — 

'*  The  first  measures  of  the  patriots  aimed  to  establish  their 
independence  on  the  basis  of  the  productive  industry  and  labori- 
ous arts  of  the  country.  They  began  with  a  non-importation 
agreement  nearly  two  years  before  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. That  agreement,  .  .  .  with  the  exception  of  the 
Address  to  the  People  of  America  and  Great  Britain,  was  the 
only  positive  act  of  the  first  Congress." 

In  this  country,  as  well  as  in  England,  the  germ  of  the  textile 
factory  existed  in  the  fulling  and  carding  mills  ;  the  former,  dating 
earlier,  being  the  mills  for  finishing  the  coarse  cloths  woven  by 
hand  in  the  homes  of  our  ancestors  ;  in  the  latter,  the  carding- 
nitU,  the  wool  was  prepared  for  the  hand-wheel.  At  the  close  of 
the  Revolution  the  domestic  system  of  manufactures  prevailed 
throughout  the  States. 

The  first  attempts  to  secure  the  spinning  machinery  which  had 
come  into  use  in  P2ngland  were  made  in  Philadelphia  early  in  the 
year  i775i  vvhen  probably  the  first  spiiming-jenny  ever  seen  in 
America  was  exhibited  in  that  city.  During  the  war  the  manu- 
facturers of  Philadelphia  extended  their  enterprises,  and  even 
built  and  run  mills  which  writers  often  call  factories,  but  they 
can  hardly  be  classed  under  that  term.  Similar  eflbrts,  all  pre- 
liminary to  the  establishment  of  the  factory  system,  were  made 
in  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1780.  In  1781  the  British  Par- 
liament, determined  that  the  textile  machinery  by  which  the 
manufactures  of  England  were  being  rapidly  extended,  and  which 
the  continental  producers  were  anxious  to  secure,  should  not  be 
used  by  the  people  of  America,  reenacted  and  enlarged  the  scope 
of  the  Statute  of  1774  against  its  exportation.  By  21  George  III., 
c.  37,  it  was  provided  that  any  person  who  packed  or  put  on 
board,  or  caused  to  be  brought  to  any  place  in  order  to  be  put  on 


U.    S.    FACTORY    SYSTEM. 


309 


THE  United 


the  desire  to 
ist  a  passion 
Ion.  Edward 
1  New  York, 

stablish  their 
ry  and  labori- 
n-importation 
of  Indcpend- 
:ption  of  the 
itain,  was  the 

of  the  textile 
former,  dating 
ths  woven  by 
,  the  carding- 
A.t  the  close  of 
jures  prevailed 

;ry  which  had 
lia  early  in  the 
ever  seen  in 
Ivar  the  manu- 
|ses,  and  even 
jries,  but  they 
jflbrts,  all  pre- 
Im,  were  made 
lie  British  Par- 
|by   which   the 
led,  and  which 
should  not  be 
Irged  the  scope 
51  George  III-i 
icd  or   put  on 
;r  to  be  put  on 


any  vessel  for  exportation,  any  machine,  engine,  tool,  press,  paper, 
utensil,  or  implement,  or  any  part  tliereof,  wliich  now  is  or  here- 
after may  be  used  in  the  woollen,  cotton,  linen,  or  silk  manufact- 
ure of  the  kingdom,  or  goods  wherein  wool,  cotton,  linen,  or 
silk  are  used,  or  any  model  or  plan  of  such  machinery,  tool, 
engine,  press,  utensil,  or  implement,  should  forfeit  every  such 
machine,  etc.,  and  all  goods  packed  therewith,  and  i'ioo,  and 
suH'er  imprisomnent  for  one  year.  In  lySz  a  law  was  enacted 
which  prohibited,  under  penalty  of  £500,  tlie  exportation  or  the 
attempt  to  export  "blocks,  plates,  engines,  tools,  or  utensils  used 
in  or  which  are  proper  for  the  preparing  or  fmishing  of  the  calico, 
cbtton,  muslin,  or  linen  printing  manufactures,  or  any  pait  tliere- 
of." The  same  act  prohibited  the  transportation  of  tools  employeil 
in  the  iron  and  steel  manufactures.  Acts  were  also  passed  inter- 
dicting the  emigration  of  artificers.  All  these  laws  were  enforced 
with  great  vigilance,  and  were  of  course  serious  obstacles  to  the 
institution  of  the  new  system  of  manufacture  in  America. 

The  manufacturers  of  this  country  were  thus  compelled  either 
to  smuggle  or  to  invent  their  machinery.  Hoth  methods  were 
practised  imtil  most  of  the  secrets  of  the  manufacture  of  conuiion 
goods  were  made  available  here. 

The  planting  of  the  mechanic  arts  in  this  country  became  a 
necessity  during  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  and  afterwards  the 
spirit  of  American  enterprise  demanded  tiiat  New  England  and 
the  Middle  vStates  should  utilize  the  water-powers  which  they 
possessed,  and  by  such  utilization  supply  the  people  with  home 
manufactures. 

When  the  people  of  the  States  saw  that  the  Treaty  of  Paris  had 
not  brought  industrial  independence,  a  new  form  of  expression 
of  patriotism  took  the  place  of  military  service  ;  and  associations 
were  formed,  the  object  of  which  was  to  discourage  the  use  of 
British  goods,  and  as  the  Articles  of  Confederation  did  not  pro- 
vide for  the  regulation  of  commerce,  the  Legislatures  of  tiie  States 
were  besought  to  protect  home  manufactures.  The  Constitution 
of  1789  remedied  the  defects  of  the  articles  in  this  respect,  and 
gave  Congress  the  power  to  legislate  on  commercial  atVairs.  The 
Constitution  was  really  the  outcome  of  the  industrial  necessities 
of  the  people,  because  it  was  on  account  of  the  difficulties  and 
the  irritations  growing  out  of  the  various  commercial  regulations 
of  the  individual  States  that  a  convention  of  commissioners  from 
the  various  States  was   held  at  Annapolis   in   September,  1786, 


1 

1 

It 

T 

V 

310 


SELECTIONS. 


wliicli  convention  recommended  the  one  that  framed  the  new  or 
present  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Of  couise  tliose  iniUistries  vvliose  pnxUicts  were  called  for  by 
the  necessities  of  the  war  were  j^reatly  stimulated,  but  with  peace 
came  reaction  anti  the  tloodin}^  of  our  markets  with  foreign 
goods. 

The  second  act  under  the  Constitution  was  passed  July  4, 
17S9,  with  this  preamble:  — 

"Whereas  it  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  govcriunent,  for 
the  discharge  of  the  debts  of  the  United  States,  and  for  the  en- 
couragement and  the  protection  of  manufactmes,  that  duties  be 
laid  on  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  imported  ; 

'*  lie  it  enacted,  etc." 

Patriotism  and  statute  law  thus  paved  the  way  for  the  impf)rta- 
tion  of  the  factory  system  of  industry,  and  so  its  institution  here, 
as  well  .IS  in  England,  was  the  result  of  both  moral  and  econom- 
ical forces. 

As  early  as  17S6,  before  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  ofl'ered  encour- 
agement for  the  introduction  of  machinery  for  carding  and  spin- 
ning by  granting  to  Robert  and  Alexander  IJarr  the  sum  of  JE200 
to  enable  them  to  complete  a  roping-machine,  and  also  to  "  con- 
struct such  other  machines  as  are  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
carding,  roping.,  and  spinning  of  sheep's  wool,  as  well  as  of 
cotton  wool."  The  next  year  these  parties  were  granted  six 
tickets  in  a  land-lottery.  Others  engaged  in  the  invention  and 
construction  of  cotton-spinning  machines  at  Hridgewater,  being 
associated  with  the  Barrs,  who  came  to  Massachusetts  from  Scot- 
land at  the  invitation  of  Hon.  Hugh  Orr,  of  Hridgewater,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  constructing  spinning-machines.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  machinery  built  by  them  was  the  first  in  this 
country  which  included  the  Arkwright  devices ;  the  first  factory, 
however,  in  America  expressly  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  was  erected  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  1787.  This 
enterprise  was  aided  by  the  Legislature.  The  factory  at  Beverly 
was  built  of  brick,  was  driven  by  horse-power,  and  was  con- 
tinued in  operation  for  several  years,  but  its  career  as  a  cotton- 
mill  was  brief,  and  no  great  success  attended  it.  About  the  same 
time  other  attempts  had  been  made  in  Rhode  Island,  New  York, 
and  Pennsylvania,  but  principally  in  Rhode  Tsland  and  that  part 
of  Massachusetts  contiguous  to  Rhode  Island. 


U.    S.    FACTORY   SVSTF.M. 


311 


he  new  or 

Ik'd  for  by 
with  peace 
ith   foreign 

,eil  July  4, 

n\ineiit,  for 
or  the  eii- 
t  duties  be 


he  importa- 
tution  here, 
lid  econoni- 

stitution   of 
•red  encour- 
ijr  and  spin- 
mi  of  £200 
so  to  "  con- 
purpose  of 
well   as   of 
rranted  six 
ention  and 
ater,  being 
from  Scot- 
water,,  and 
iThere  is  no 
first    in  this 
rst  factory, 
|e  of  cotton 
787.     This 
at  Beverly 
was   con- 
las  a  cotton- 
ait  the  same 
|New  York, 
d  that  part 


The  hf)ii()r  f)f  tlie  introduction  of  jv)\ver-spitming  machines  iji 
this  comitrv,  and  of  their  early  use  here,  is  siiared  by  tiu-se  last- 
named  States;  for  while  Massachusetts  claims  to  have  made  the 
first   experiments   in    eml)od}in<;  the   principles   of    Arkwright's 
inventions  and  the  llrst  cotton  factory  in  America,  Rhode  Island 
claims  the  (list  factory  in  which   perfected   maihiiiery,  made  after 
the   En<ilish    models,  was   practicallv   emplo\ed.     This  was  the 
factory    built  by   Sanuiel    Slater,  in    1790,   in   I'awtucket,  Khode 
Island,  which  still  stands  iti  the  rear  of  Mill  street  in  that  city,  and 
the  hnm  of  cotton  machinery  can  still  be  heard  within   its  walls. 
Previous  to    1790   the    common  jeiniy  and  stock-card    had    been 
in  operation   upon   a   small  scale  in  various  ])arts  of  tlie  United 
.States,  but  principally  in  I'eimsylvania,  New  N'ork,  Uhode  Island, 
and  Massachusetts  ;  but  every  endeavor   to  introduce  the  system 
of    spinniiij^    known    as    water-frame    sj)inning,    or   Arkvvri<^ht's 
method,   had   failed.     The   introduction   of  this   system   was  the 
work  of  Slater,  whom  President  Jackson  desij^nated  "■  The  father 
of  American  manufactinx's."     Samuel  Slater  was  born  in  Helper, 
Derbyshire,  ICiij^iantl,  June  9,  176S,  and  at  fourteen  years  of  ajj^c* 
was  bound  as  an  apprentice  to  Jedediah  Strutt,  ICscj.,  a  maiuifact- 
urer  of  cotton   machinery    at  Milford,  near  Helper.     Strutt   was 
for  several  years  a  partner  of  Sir  Richard  Arkwri<jht  in  the  cot- 
ton-spinning business  ;  so  young  Slater  had  every  opportunity  to 
master  the  details   of  the   construction   of  the  cotton   machinery 
then  in  use  in  England,  for  during  the    last  fom*   or  five  years  of 
his  a))prenticeship    he  served    as    general   overseer,  not  only  in 
making    macliinery,    but    in    the    manufacturing    department    of 
Strutt's    factory.     Near  the  close  of  his    term   his  attention  was 
drawn  to  the  wants  of  the  vStates  by  accidentally  seeing  a   notice 
in  an  American  paper  of  the   etlbrts   various  States  were  making 
by  way  of  otlering  bounties  to  parties  for  the  production  of  cotton 
machinery.     vSlater  knew  well   that   under   the   laws  of  I'^ngland 
he  could  carry  neither  machines  nor  motlels  or  plans  of  macliines 
out  of  the  country  ;  so,  after  completing  his  full   time  with  Mr. 
Strutt,  he  continued  some  time   longer  with  him,  superintending 
some  new  works  Mr.  Strutt  was  erecting.     This   he  did  that  he 
might  so  perfect  his  knowledge  of  the  business  in  every  depart- 
ment  that    he  could  construct   machinerv  from  memorv  without 
taking  plans,  models,  or   specifications.      With    this    knowledge 
Slater  embarked  at  London,  September  13,  17S9,  for  New  York, 
where  he  landed  November  17,  and   at  once  sought  parties  inter- 


"  f 


I 


I 


I 


ii 


!lf 


312 


SELECTIONS. 


i 

M 

I  "■ 

P 

■  1     t 

;      It' 

' 

csted  in  cotton  manufactures.  Finding  the  works  of  the  New 
York  Manufacturin<x  Company,  to  whom  lie  was  introchiced, 
unsatistactory,  he  corresponded  witli  Messrs.  lirown  tSc  Alrnv, 
of  I'rovidence,  wlio  owned  some  crude  spinniiifj^-machines,  some 
of  whicii  came  from  the  factory  at  IJcverly,  Massachusetts.  In 
January,  1 790,  Shiter  made  arranj?ements  with  IJrown  tt  Ahiiy 
to  construct  machinery  on  the  English  phm.  This  he  did  at 
Pawtucket,  making  the  machinery  principally  with  his  own 
hands,  and  on  the  20th  of  December,  1790,  he  started  three  cards, 
drawing  and  roving,  together  with  seventy-two  spindles,  working 
entirely  on  the  Arkwright  plan,  and  being  the  first  of  the  kind 
ever  operated  in  America. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  course  of  the  progress  of  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods  in  this  country  is  cjuite  clearly  marked, 
yet  a  careful  study  of  the  subject  seems  rather  to  dissipate  the  line 
of  advancement  instead  of  bringing  it  into  clearer  view.  Dr. 
Leander  liishop,  in  his  exceedingly  valual)le  work,  "  A  History 
of  American  Manufactures,"  iti  speaking  of  the  clothing  manu- 
facture, states  that  a  correspondent  of  the  ''  American  Museum," 
Avriting  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  July,  1790,  refers  to 
a  gentleman  who  "  had  completed,  and  had  in  operation  on  the 
High  Hills  of  the  Santee,  near  Statesburg,  ginning,  carding,  and 
other  machines  driven  by  water,  and  also  spinning-machines, 
with  eighty-four  spindles  eacli,  witli  every  necessary  article  for 
manufacturing  cotton.  If  this  information  be  correct,  ihe  attempt 
to  manufacture  bv  machinery  the  cotton  which  thev  were  then 
beginning  to  cultivate  extensively  w'as  nearly  as  early  as  those  of 
the  Nortliern  States," 

Certainly  this  bit  of  history  of  attempts  in  Southern  States,  of 
the  etVorts  of  Samuel  W'ctherell,  of  Piiiladelphia,  of  the  lieverly 
Company,  in  Massachusetts,  of  Moses  Brown,  at  Providence, 
R.I.,  all  before  Slater's  coming,  to  introduce  spinning  by  power, 
illustrates  the  ditliculty  of  locating  the  origin  of  an  institution 
when  a  couiitrv  of  such  proportions  as  our  own  constitutes  the 
field.  It  is  safe,  historically,  to  start  with  Slater  as  the  lirst  to 
erect  C(itton  machinery  on  tlie  English  plan,  and  to  give  the  factory 
system  1790  J^s  its  birthday. 

The  progress  of  the  system  has  been  uninterrupted  from  1790, 
save  by  temporary  causes  and  for  brief  periods ;  l)ut  these  inter- 
ruptions onlv  gave  an  increased  impetus  to  its  growth. 

In  1792,  by  tlie  invention  of  the  cotton-gin,  an  American,  Eli 


U.    S.    FACTORY    SVSIKM. 


313 


the  New 

itrodiiccd, 

&   Almy, 

iiics,  some 
I  setts.  In 
&  Almy 
he  ditl  at 
I  his  own 
irec  cards, 
s,  workhio 
f  the   kinil 

rcss  of  the 
Iv  marked, 
Ate  the  line 
iew.       Dr. 
A  History 
liiijjj  manu- 
Museum," 
lO,  refers  to 
tioM  on  the 
irdinjjj,  and 
■  machines, 
article  for 
he  attempt 
were  then 
as  those  of 

|i  vStates,  of 

he  l^everly 

I'rovidence, 

by  power, 

institntion 

Istitutes  the 

he  iirst  to 

the  factory 

from  179O1 
[liese  inter- 

lerican,  Eli 


Whitney,  of  Massacluisetts,  residing  temporarily  in  Geor^jia, 
contributed  as  much  toward  the  growth  of  tlie  factory  system  as 
England  hatl  contributed  by  the  splendid  series  of  inventions 
which  made  the  cotton-manufacturing  machiiK  y  of  the  system. 

The  alarm  of  the  people  at  the  increase  in  the  demand  for 
foreign  goods  took  shape  again  in  1794  and  the  decaile  foUcnving, 
and,  by  patriotic  appeals  to  all  classes,  societies  and  clubs  were 
formed  pledged  to  wear  only  home-made  goods.  Congress  was 
called  upon  to  restrict  importations.  The  result  of  all  these 
eflbrts  and  inlluences  stimulated  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
other  textiles.  The  water  privileges  of  New  England  and  the 
Middle  States  ofVered  to  enterprising  men  the  inducement  to  build 
factories  for  the  spiiuiing  of  yarn  for  the  househokl  manufacture 
of  cloth.  At  the  close  of  1809,  according  to  a  report  made  liy 
Mr.  Albert  Gallatin,  vSecretary  of  the  Treasury  in  18 10,  eighty- 
seven  cotton  factories  had  been  erected  in  the  United  States, 
which,  when  in  operation,  would  employ  80,000  spindles. 

The  perfect  factory,  the  scientific  arrangement  of  parts  for  the 
successive  processes  necessary  for  the  mani[)uhition  of  the  raw 
material  till  it  came  out  tinished  goods,  had  not  yet  been  con- 
structed. As  I  have  said,  the  power-loom  did  not  come  into  use 
in  England  till  about  1806,  while  in  tliis  covmtry  it  was  not  u^e(l 
at  all  till  after  the  war  of  181 3.  In  England,  even,  it  had  not  been 
used  in  the  same  factory  with  the  spinning-machines.  In  fact, 
for  manv  vears  the  custoin  of  spiiniing  the  yarn  under  one  man- 
agement and  weaving  the  cloth  under  another  has  prevailed  in 
England. 

In  181 1,  Mr.  Francis  C.  Lowell,  of  Boston,  visited  England, 
and  spent  much  time  in  inspecting  cotton  factories,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  all  possible  informaticm  relative  to  cotton  manu- 
facture, with  a  view  to  the  introduction  of  improved  machinery 
in  the  United  States.  The  power-loom  was  being  introduced  in 
Groat  Britain  at  this  time,  but  its  construction  was  kept  very 
secret,  and  public  opinion  was  not  very  faxorable  to  its  success. 
Mr.  Lowell  learned  all  he  could  regarding  the  new  niachiue.  and 
determined  to  perfect  it  himself.  He  returned  to  the  States  in 
1814,  and  at  once  began  his  experimeiits  on  liroail  street,  Boston. 
His  Hrst  move  was  t<j  secure  the  skill  of  i*aul  Moody,  of  .\niesburv, 
Mass.,  a  well-known  mechanic.  By  and  through  llie  encourage- 
ment of  Mr.  Nathan  Applelon,  a  comijany  had  been  oigani/ed 
by  Mr.  Lowell  and  Mr.  Patrick  T.  Jackson,  with  Mr.  Appleton 


314 


SELECTIONS. 


in' 


as  one  of  its  directors,  for  the  establishment  of  a  cotton  manu- 
factory, to  be  located  in  Waltham,  Mass.,  on  a  water  privile<je 
they  had  purchased.  This  factory  was  completed  in  the  autumn 
of  1S14,  and  in  it  wiis  placed  the  loom  perfected  by  Mr.  Lowell, 
which  didered  much  from  the  English  looms.  Mr.  Lowell  had 
neither  plans  nor  models  for  his  factory  and  looms,  but  in  the 
year  named  the  company  set  up  a  full  set  of  machinery  for  weav- 
ing and  spinning,  there  being  1,70^  "lindles ;  and  this  factory  at 
Waltham  was  the  first  in  the  wo  so  far  as  record  shows,  in 
which  all  the  processes  involved  the  manufacture  of  goods, 
from  the  raw  material  to  the  finished  product,  were  carried  on  in 
cue  establishment  by  successive  steps,  mathematically  considered, 
under  one  harmonious  system.  Mr.  Francis  C.  Lowell,  aided  by 
Mr.  Jackson,  is  untjuestionably  entitled  to  the  credit  of  arranging 
this  admirable  system,  and  it  is  remarkable  how  few  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  arrangements  established  by  him  in  this 
factory  at  Waltham. 

So  America  furnished  the  stone  which  completed  the  industrial 
arch  of  the  factory  system  of  manufactures. 

The  growth  of  the  factory  system  [is  well]  illustrated  by  the 
cotton  manufacture.  After  the  success  of  the  power-loom,  the  cot- 
ton manufacture  took  rapid  strides,  both  in  Europe  and  America. 
The  hand-loom  and  the  hand-weaver  were  rapidly  displaced. 
Factories  sprung  up  on  all  the  streams  of  Yorkshire  and  Lanca- 
shire, in  England,  while  in  this  country  the  activity  of  the 
promoters  of  the  intlustry  won  them  wealth,  antl  won  cities  from 
barren  pastures.  They  erected  Lowell,  I>awrence,  Ilolyoke, 
Fall  River,  and  many  other  thriving  cities  and  towns,  and  now 
in  this  generation  the  industry  is  taking  root  upon  the  banks  of 
.Southern  streams.  The  progressive  steps  of  this  great  trade  are 
shown  by  the  tables  which  follow.  'J'he  facts  for  Great  Britain 
for  th<'  year  1S33  are  taken  from  Baines'  History  of  Cotton 
Manufacture^  and  have  been  corroborated  as  far  as  possilde  from 
other  sources  ;  they  constitute  the  most  reliable  data  obtainable 
for  that  j^eriod.  For  1S31,  for  the  LIniled  States,  we  have  the 
census  returns  and  other  sources,  none  of  them  very  accurate,  yet 
thev  give  the  best  approximate  figures. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  number  of  cotton  factories  in  this 
country  was  Soi  in  1831,  1,240  in  1840,  1.074  in  1850,  and  that 
since  18^0  there  has  been  a  constant  decrease  in  the  number  of 
eslalilishments.      This  is  the  result  of  consolidation  and  the  estab- 


ton  mami- 
i-  privilege 
ie  autumn 
r,  Lowell, 
^ovvell  had 
but  in  the 
•  for  weav- 
s  factory  at 
1  shows,  in 
:  of  tjoods, 
irried  on  in 
considered, 
11,  aided  by 
f  arranging 
w   changes 
him  in  this 

le  industrial 

ated  by  the 
)m,  the  cot- 
d  America, 
displaced, 
mil  Lanca- 
itv   of    the 
cities  from 
,    IlolyoUe, 
■;,  and  now 
11-  banks  of 
lit  trade  are 
at   Britain 
of   Cotton 
ssihle  from 
obtainable 
have   the 
curate,  yet 

ies   in  this 

I),  and  that 

number  of 

the  estab- 


r.    S.    FACTORY   SYSTEM. 


315 


lishment  of  large  works,  the  smaller  factories  being  closetl  or 
united  with  the  large  ones.'  While  the  number  of  factories  has 
decreased,  the  consumption  of  cotton  ami  the  production  of  goods 
has  steadily  increasetl.  Perhaps  the  best  gauge  for  the  progress 
of  the  iridustry  is  t<i  be  found  in  the  (juantity  of  cotton  consumed 
j)er  capita  of  the  population.  In  Great  Britain,  in  1S31,  the  home 
consumption  of  cotton  per  caj)ita  (excluding  the  proportion  for 
the  export  trade)  was  6.62  pounds;  in  iSSi  it  was  7.7:5  i:)oiunls  ; 
in  the  United  States,  for  1830,  it  was  5.9  pounds;  in  iS^io  it  was 
13.91  pounds.  That  is,  the  clothing  of  the  people  of  this  country 
in  1830  recjuired  5.9  pounds  of  cotton  per  annum,  and  now  it  re- 
quires 13.91  pouTids. 

If  we  take  the  per  capita  consumption  of  the  factories,  inclinl- 
ing  exports  and  home  consumption,  the  proportion  tor  Great 
Britain  in  1S31  was  16.15  pounds;  in  iSSi,  40.8  pounils  ;  for  the 
United  States,  in  1S31,  it  was,  on  this  basis,  6.1  pomids ;  in  iSSo 
it  had  risen  to  14.96  pounds.  The  ratios  given  as  to  spintlles  to 
persons  employed,  capital  to  spindles,  product  to  spindles,  ca})ital 
to  product,  proihict  to  persons  employed,  while  in  some  sense 
fallacious,  ami  more  valuable  to  the  expert  than  to  the  gei\eral 
reader,  yet  are  true  for  the  time  gi\en  and  the  existing  cir- 
cumstances, and  certainly  show  the  change  of  circumstances. 
Tile  ratio  of  consumption  to  spindles  is  of  course  inlluenced 
largelv  by  the  nuiuber  of  the  yarn  proilucetl,  and  manv  of  the 
British  mills  spin  liner  numbers  than  do  the  mills  of  this  conntrv  ; 
but  whatever  may  be  the  cause,  the  ratio  stands  as  given,  and 
shows  that  the  attendant  circumstances,  either  of  machinerv  or 
kind  of  product,  ox  of  some  other  matter,  vary  as  to  the  two 
countries. 


'Tlic  iiunilxT  of  cotton  fuctoiics  for  iSSo  should  l>o  iiicrenseil  by  the  niiinbcr  of  mills  en- 
fjaijod  ill  workiiii;  raw  cotton,  waislc,  or  cotton  yarn  into  lio>iiMy,  wcbliintr,  tapes,  fancy 
t.ilnics,  or  niixcii  umuls,  or  other  fabrics  which  ;iro  not  >olii  as  spocilic  inanuf  iclmes  of  cot. 
ton  or  of  wool ;  sonic  of  these  work  both  libics,  Init  be  Ion  y;  more  in  the  cl.iss  of  cot  ion  inanu- 
f.ictnrcs  tlian  in  anv  other.  'I'hese  establisliments,  _>  lo  in  all,  in  iS>nu,  have,  without  (huibt, 
been  inclnileil  in  the  list  of  cotlou-mills  heretofore;  so  that  now  the  total  nnniher,  to  corre- 
^ponJ  with  the  past,  shoulil  be  1,005  i^otlon  f.ictories  in  the  I'nited  States  in  i&So. 


% 


3i6 


SELECTIONS. 


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U.    S.    COTTON   MANUFACTURES. 


T//E     COTTON   MANUFACTURES. 


317 


FROM  AxKiNsox's   Rkpokx  ox  t„k   Cotto.  M.vxukactukes,  Tenth 
Censis,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  9^6-555. 

The  cotton  manufacture  of  the  Unite.l  St.-,t«  may  be  now  con- 

on  vvh.ch  the  bu.s,ncs.,  ,s  conducted  h,  the  Uuitcl  States  varies 
great  yfron,  that  of  any  other  country  ,  and  this  diHlrcn  e  a 
man,  y  from  a  .litVerence  not  only  in  tl,e  habits  au.l  customs  o     I  c 
people,  but  also  iu  their  con.litiou  and  intelli.a.ncc 

The  home  market  is  the  most  important"'one,  an.I  may  lone 
contume  to  be  so,  although  the  export  .Icn.and  fo;„ur  fabZ  Z 

Jncreasr"  '  '"'''  ""'•  °'°"''  ••"""""'  ""'""^''  -"'  ^^  '"-'y  '« 

In  contrast  ^vith  the  cotton  manufacttner  of  Great  ISritain,  our 

of  an  urtell  gent  class  of  cnst„n,ers  living  ,u„ler  substantially  mri- 
fo.m  conditions  and    varying    but    little    iu    their   rec,uiren,ent 
Hence  we  are  not  called  upon  for  the  great  variety  of  llbrics    1  a 
must  be  supplied  by  Great  IBritaiu.     In  consequence  of    I  L       - 

actn.e,  ot  l.ngland  ,s  much  more  ,livided  than  with  us.      With 

he  exeept.ou  of  a  few  large  establisluuents,  working  ,nai,dy    o 

st.pply    he  hon,e  market,  few  goods  are  known  iu  liugland  by  the 

name  ot  the  factory  i„  which  they  are  n.,de,  nor  a.^  .1, ey  sol  1 

under  the  nan,e  „t  the  manufacturer;  but  toa  ,ery  large  ev.cLT le 

le  •     l^'T^'  "='"">  '^  -^"''l  to  ""-■  warehousen,an,  or  to 

he  merchant,  to  be  stan,pe<l  au.l  packed  by  him,  or  ,0  be  ched 
bleached    or  prn.ted  tnuler  hi,.  <lirecti„u.   'if  English  good     Id 
been  sold  under  the  name  an.I  stamp  of  the  nunurf.cn^r.  as  c    ' 

clw  for  clti""  '"■  'I'T  ^'"l'"'  f '"^■''  ""'"l'-^  "'^-  -'-tilueion  of 
clay  for  CO   on  m.ght  not  have  been  carrie.l  to  so  great  an  extent. 

In  the  Ituted  .States  cotton  goods  are  spun  and  woven    in    the 

same  factory,  and,  whether  sold  in  the  gray  ,m-  bleached.  Ihey  are 

almo.,t  all  sta.npe.l  and  marketed  tnuler  the  na.ne  of  the  f  ,ct,  ry  in 

winch  they  are  n.ule.     Each  factory,  therefore,  has  its  rep  a  ,  ij 

.0  susta.n,  a„<l  whether  the  fabric  be  c .e  or  tine  it  is  tile  el  b 

ot  every  one  to  make  it  good  of  its  kind. 


I!  ! 
!:i 
'it 

■  ■!  i 


■1 

1^   i  1 

^ '     r  i  1 

^  11 

i'ii 


kl 


If 


;!i 


1 1 


ill. 


3iS 


SELECTIONS. 


The  same  rule  applies  to  printed  calicoes.  These  are  marketed 
under  llie  name  of  the  works  in  which  they  have  been  printed, 
and  the  reputation  an  permanent  existence  of  these  works  rest 
upon  uniformity  in  qualit}',  excellence  in  color  and  style,  and 
constant  proj^ress  in  the  art  of  design. 

We  may  not  claim  to  be  more  honest  than  our  rivals,  but  it 
is  a  great  error  to  suppose  that  it  is  joermanently  profitable  to 
make  an  article  that  is  not  what  it  purports  to  be.  A  cotton  fab- 
ric may  be  of  a  low  grade,  and  may  be  intended  to  sell  at  a 
low  price,  but  yet  it  is  not  profitable  to  substitute  clay  for 
coiu.  ;  the  fabric,  whatever  it  is,  has  its  name  and  reputation, 
and  must  be  true  to  them,  or  else  the  demand  for  it  will  sooner 
or  later  cease.  Even  goods  that  are  made  for  linings,  and 
that  need  to  be  starched  and  stiftened  in  order  to  be  used,  must 
have  a  i.;:,j.'brm  cjuality  in  the  fabric  itself  to  hold  a  permanent 
plu.. V  III  ucir  market.  Dyed  goods  that  require  to  be  woven 
on  hea.'i'.  c*.I  warps  cannot,  except  by  rule,  be  loaded  with 
sizing.  If  an  uc  einpt  is  made  to  introduce  an  article  in  which 
clay  I  .  s  Ik'cu  ..  i^-  ;^  to  make  it  heavier,  it  is  immediately 
uccecicd,  bt  i.  r.^'  u  !=:e  '^  sewing-machines  is  almost  universal, 
and  the  clay  in  tie  u;biic  heats  the  needle  and  exposes  the 
fraud. 

In  stating  those  conditions  under  which  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton is  conducted  in  the  United  States  for  the  home  demand,  it  is 
not  intended  to  imply  that  the  use  of  a  foreign  substance  to  give 
additional  weight  to  a  cotton  fabric  is,  of  necessity,  a  fraud.  For 
instance,  there  is  a  very  large  demand  in  Ciiina  for  materials  for 
the  grave-clothes  of  corpses,  and  for  this  use  "  earth  to  earth, 
and  dust  to  dust"  may  be  considered  a  legitimate  rule,  even  if 
the  earth  is  conveyed  in  the  fabric  which  is  nominally  made  of  cot- 
ton. Some  of  the  finest  cotton  fabrics  yet  made  in  the  United 
States,  which  closely  resemble  silk,  are  used  mainly  for  lining 
coftins. 

The  principal  market  for  our  own  falirics  is  found  among  the 
thritty  working-people,  who  constitute  the  great  mass  of  our 
population. 

It  has  therefore  happened  that,  although  we  have  not  until 
recently  undertaken  the  manufacture  of  very  fine  fabrics,  the 
average  quality  of  the  fabrics  that  we  do  make  is  better  than  that 
of  anv  other  nation,  with  the  possil)le  exception  of  France.  It  is 
for  the  wants  of  tlie  million  that  our  cotton   factories  are  mainly 


;  are  marketed 
been  printed, 
ese  works  rest 
nd   style,  and 

r  rivals,  but  it 
r  profitable  to 

A  cotton  fab- 
d  to  sell  at  a 
:itute  clay  for 
id  reputation, 
it  will  sooner 
linings,  and 
be  used,  must 
1  a  permanent 

to  be  woven 
e  loaded  witli 
tide  in  whicli 
i  immediately 
nost  universal, 
exposes    the 

ifacture  of  cot- 
demand,  it  is 
^tancc  to  give 
a  fraud.     For 

materials  for 
Irth   to  earth, 

rule,  even  if 
■  madeof  cot- 
|n  the  United 
lly  for  lining 

d  among  the 
mass   of  our 

|ve  not  until 
fabrics,   the 

|er  than  that 

Kaiice.     It  is 

are  mainly 


U.    S.    COTTON    MANUFACTURES. 


319 


worked,  and  we  have  ceased  to  import  staple  goods,  and  shall 
never  be  likely  to  resume  their  import.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
may  for  a  long  period  coiitiiuie  to  import  the  finer  gocnls  that 
depend  mainly  on  fashion  and  style  for  their  use,  and  that  are 
purely  articles  of  luxury.  As  has  been  stated,  the  substantial 
fabrics  that  constitute  the  main  part  of  our  cotton  manufacture, 
and  that  are  used  by  the  masses  of  the  people,  are  of  the  best  of 
their  kind,  with  the  possible  exception  of  those  maile  in  France. 
The  French  peasantry  are  a  s-agacious  and  truly  economical  race, 
and  will  not  buy  a  poor  fabric  if  they  can  get  a  good  one  ;  hence  the 
cotton  fabrics  for  their  use  are  of  a  very  substantial  kind,  and  are 
much  more  free  from  adulteration  than  those  of  any  other  country 
in  Europe.  The  common  cotton  fabrics  of  England,  IJelgium, 
and  Germany  could  hardly  be  sold  in  the  United  States  at  any 
price. 

The  finest  printed  calicoes  of  France  and  England  may  be  the 
best  of  their  kind  ;  but  the  printed  calicoes  for  the  use  of  tlie  multi- 
tude, and  which  constitute  the  really  important  branch  of  this 
department  of  tlie  manufacture,  are  of  much  better  (juality  in  the 
United  States  than  in  Europe,  and  are  also  of  finer  colors  and  of 
more  varied  styles. 

In  fact,  one  of  the  chief  obstacles  that  it  has  been  Jiecessary  to 
overcome  in  the  introduction  of  unbleached  American  cotton 
fabrics  in  the  English  market,  and  in  other  markets  heretofore 
supplied  by  England,  has  been  their  apparently  open  texture, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  heavy  sizing.  In  the  United  States  the 
sizing  used  upon  the  warp,  and  which  is  necessary  in  order  to 
weave  it,  is  made  from  corn  or  potato  starch,  free  from  any  sub- 
stance intending  to  make  it  heavier.  In  the  gray  clotii  the  sizing, 
therefore,  constitutes  only  2^^  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  weight,  and 
when  the  fabric  is  wasiied  it  shrinks  more  in  measure  than  it 
loses  in  weight;  hence  a  square  yard  washed  and  dried  without 
stretching  will  be  heavier  than  a  square  yard  taken  directly  from 
the  loom. 

In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  even  the  pure  sizing  is  made 
from  wheat  flour,  which  is  very  glutinous  ;  and  the  fabrics  thus 
woven,  even  where  no  adulteration  is  intended,  lose  from  10  to 
12  percent,  of  their  weight  on  the  first  washing.  These  pure 
goods  are,  however,  made  chiefly  for  the  home  consumption  of 
the  richer  classes  of  England.  The  greater  part  of  the  English 
cotton  fabrics,  exported  or  used  by  the  working-classes,  are  loaded 


FhJ 


V' 


t  >r 


tl 


i  i  i 

Ml . 

'1 

1 

1  . 

1  1 

:   ' 

. 

j  ?  ■: 

■■ 
1    \ 

; 

i  i.  ■ 
1 

i 

I 

1 

t 

-   ] 

320 


SELECTIONS. 


with  from  lo  to  40  per  cent,  of  clay  and  other  substances.  The 
art  of  sizing  has  been  hi<;flily  perfected  in  Enj^huid,  and  has  been 
made  tlie  subject  of  very  numerous  patents;  and,  as  the  use  of 
clay  and  flour  to  the  extent  of  100  pounds  to  each  100  pounds  of 
cotton-warp  yarn  involves  <;;reat  danger  of  mildew,  many  ingen- 
ious cliemical  applications  have  also  been  patented  to  serve  as 
antiseptics,  such  as  ciiioride  of  zinc,  chloride  of  calcium,  common 
salt,  white  vitriol,  etc.  These  various  antiseptics  are  compounded 
with  flour,  gypsum,  soajistone,  china  clay,  and  other  heavy  sub- 
stances in  various  ways.  The  English  text-books  upon  the  art  of 
sizing  are  instructive  and  suggestive,  especially  in  respect  to  the 
rules  for  the  purchase  of  the  most  glutinous  kinds  of  flour  and  for 
the  detection  of  adulteration  in  flour,  it  being  obvious  that  unless 
the  flour  is  pure  and  well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  use  cotton  instead  of  clay  to  make  up  the  weight  of 
the  fabric. 

It  will,  of  course,  take  a  good  deal  of  time  to  accustom  buyers 
to  the  more  open  texture  of  cotton  fabrics  in  which  no  clay 
is  used  ;  but  as  time  passes  American  fabrics  are  being  steadily 
substituted  for  those  previously  used  by  foreign  nations,  espe- 
cially in  China. 

Since  the  year  1S60  the  cotton  manufacture  of  the  United 
States  has  been  exposed  to  greater  vicissitudes  than  any  other 
important  branch  of  the  national  industry,  and  the  wonder  is  not 
that  there  should  have  been  some  disasters,  but  that  it  should  have 
survived  at  all  in  the  hands  of  its  original  owners.  In  i860  the 
whole  number  of  spindles  in  the  United  States  was  5,235,000. 
From  1857  *"  1S60  the  cost  of  constructing  a  spinning  and  weav- 
ing factory  on  the  medium  fabrics  woven  of  No.  25  yarn  was 
from  $16  to  $20  per  spindle  (the  number  designates  the  number 
of  skeins  of  S40  yards  of  yarn  each  in  one  pound).  The  value  of 
a  bale  of  cotton  of  480  pounds  was  from  $40  to  $50.  Then  came 
the  combined  eflects  of  war,  paper  money,  and  scarcity  of  cotton. 
At  one  period  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cotton  machinery  of 
the  United  States  was  stopped  ;  the  value  of  a  bale  of  cotton  rose 
to  over  $900,  and  the  price  of  some  kinds  of  goods  was  seven  to 
eight  times  the  present  price.  A  little  later  new  mills  were  con- 
structed which  cost  from  $30  to  $40  per  spindle. 

At  the  date  of  the  census  the  number  of  spindles  operated 
in  the  specific  manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics  was  10,653,435  ;  but 
the  spindle  has  changed  in  its  productive  power,  and  each  spindle 


4 


U.    S.   COTTON    MANUFACTURES. 


321 


itances.     The 
\m\   has  been 

as  the  use  of 
[CX5  pounds  of 
,  many  nigen- 
:(l  to  serve  as 
ium,  common 
!  compounded 
er  heavy  suh- 
ipon  the  art  of 
respect  to  the 
f  flour  and  for 
us  that  unless 
!,  it  would  be 

the  weight  of 

custom  buyers 
/hich  no  clay 
being  steadily 
nations,  espe- 

)f  the   United 
ui  any  other 
wonder  is  not 
t  should  have 
In  1 860  the 
as  5,235,ocx). 
ng  and  vveav- 
25  yarn  was 
s  the  number 
The  value  of 
Then  came 
:ity  of  cotton, 
machinery  of 
if  cotton  rose 
was  seven  to 
Us  were  con- 

llles  operated 

'53435  ;  but 
each  spindle 


of  1S80  was  much  more  etVective  than  that  of  1S60.  Tlie  value 
of  the  bale  of  cotton  was  again  from  $j.o  to  $50 ;  tiie  standard 
printing-cloth,  which  reached  33  cents  a  yard  during  tlie  war, 
was  worth  4  cents;  the  No.  25  mill  for  spiiuiing  and  weaving 
could  l>e  built  for  from  $14  to  $18  per  spindle ;  our  export  of 
cotton  fabrics  was  more  in  value  and  much  more  in  (|uantity  than 
in  iS6o,  and  the  only  check  to  its  steady  and  protitablc  increase 
was  the  renewal  of  the  home  demand.  Such  have  been  the 
changes  and  fluctuations  ;  yet,  despite  them  all,  not  one  spindle  in 
ten  has  passed  from  the  ownership  of  the  person,  firm,  or  cor- 
poration in  whose  possession  it  was  in  1S60,  except  in  the  regular 
process  of  bequest  or  voluntary  sale. 

During  the  period  of  inflation  or  of  great  vicissitude,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  managers  of  the  property  was  of  necessity  devoted  to 
other  matters  than  the  improvements  and  minute  savings  in 
which  the  profit  of  the  business  now  consists  ;  but  during  the  last 
few  years  very  great  improvements  have  been  made,  and  the 
lesson  of  economy  and  saving  has  been  learned.  The  best  ex- 
ample that  can  be  cited  may  be  found  in  the  record  of  o!ie  great 
factory  working  upon  coarse  and  substantial  fabrics,  and  consum- 
ing more  than  20,000  bales  of  cotton  a  year.  Sixtv  per  cent,  of 
its  products  are  sold  for  export  to  various  parts  of  the  world.  The 
proportion  of  operatives  to  each  1,000  spindles  has  been  de- 
creased 43  per  cent.,  or  from  26 j4  to  15.  The  wages  of 
women,  who  constitute  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  operatives, 
have  beeti  increased  33  per  cent.  The  cost  of  making  the 
cloth,  aside  from  the  material  used,  has  been  decreased  21  per 
cent. 

In  1S60  the  average  product  of  one  operative,  working  one 
year,  was  5.317  pounds;  in  18S0,  7,928  pounils  of  drill,  such  as 
is  exported  to  Ciiina.  Assuming  5  pounds,  or  about  16  yards,  as 
the  annual  requirement  of  a  Chinaman  for  dress,  in  1S60  one 
Lowell  operative,  working  one  year,  clothed  1,063  Chinese;  in 
1880  one  could  supply  1,586.  It  will  be  obvious  that  no  hand 
spinning  and  weaving  can  compete  with  this  product  of  machin- 
ery ;  yet  the  machine-made  fabrics  of  Europe  and  America 
combined,  have  as  yet  reached  only  six  or  eight  in  a  hundred  of 
the  Chinese.  How  soon  the  rest  will  be  clothed  in  cotton  fabrics 
made  by  machinery  from  American  cotton,  therefore,  depends  but 
little  on  whether  the  wages  of  the  Lowell  factory  girl  be  $4  or  $6 
per  week,  but  rather  on  what  exchangeable  products  the  Chinese 


i 


.',  I 


t\ 


M 


i  '■ 

li 

1 

pi 

jt 

322 


SELECTIONS. 


can  produce  better  or  cheaper  than  we  can.  The  more  tea,  silk, 
sugar,  aiul  otlier  commodities  we  buy  from  them,  the  more  cot- 
ton fabrics  and  other  products  in  which  we  excel  will  they  buy 
from  us. 

It  has  been  held  that  the  cotton  of  America  must  be  more  and 
more  used,  both  in  America  and  elsewhere,  and  that,  as  time 
goes  on,  almost  every  other  i<in(l,  with  the  exception  of  tlie  cotton 
of  Eu;ypt,  must  give  place  to  it.  To  what  extent  may  the  same 
preeminence  be  secured  for  the  cotton  fabrics  of  the  United  .States 
in  the  markets  of  tlie  world  that  we  have  secured  in  respect  to  the 
cotton  fibre? 

In  the  consideration  of  this  branch  of  the  subject,  our  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  present  condition  of  competition  between  the 
mills  of  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States  with  the  mills  of  Great 
Britain. 

In  respect  to  the  Eastern  States  the  cotton  factories  of  Lowell  in 
Massachusetts,  Manchester  in  New  Hampshire,  Biddeford  and 
Lewiston  in  Maine,  may  be  considered-  in  tlieir  relation  to  the 
factories  of  Manchester,  Stockport,  Preston,  and  Bolton,  in  Eng- 
land. For  the  purposes  of  this  comparison  it  may  be  assumed, 
that  there  can  be  no  permanent  advantage  of  one  set  of  mills 
over  the  other  in  respect  to  the  quality  and  perfection  of  the 
machinery.  At  any  given  time  some  advantage  may  be  claimed 
and  admitted  on  either  side  in  some  special  department  of  the 
mill ;  but  every  invention  or  improvement  will  sooner  or  later 
be  adopted  on  both  sides,  and  the  supremacy  in  the  art  of  convert- 
ing cotton  into  cloth  must  ultimately  fall  to  that  country  or  section 
which  possesses  the  advantage  in  respect  to  the  conditions  otVered 
to  the  operatives  and  in  proximity  to  the  source  of  the  raw 
material. 

The  best  conditions  of  life  for  the  operatives,  and  the  best  pros- 
pects of  improving  their  condition  and  that  of  their  children,  are 
of  the  gravest  importance.  The  factors  in  this  problem  are 
education,  shelter,  subsistence,  and  opportunity  for  other  kinds 
of  work.  In  respect  to  education,  the  common-school  system  of 
the  United  States  assures  a  thorough  training  free  of  cost,  and  in 
the  principal  towns  and  cities  free  education  is  carried  to  the 
point  of  preparing  the  pupil  to  enter  a  university. 

In  respect  to  subsistence,  the  factories  of  New  England  are 
3,000  miles  nearer  the  wheat-fields  and  grazing-grounds  of  the 
West  than  those  of  Lancashire ;   and,  so  long  as  Europe  buys 


U.    S.    COrrON   MANLTACrrRKS. 


323 


ore  tea,  silk, 
ic  more  cot- 
nil  they  buy 

he  more  and 
:liat,  as  time 
of  the  cotton 
nay  the  same 
Jnitetl  States 
respect  to  the 

our  attention 
J  between  the 
lills  of  Great 

i  of  Lowell  in 
I  icicle  ford  and 
elation  to  the 
)lton,  in  Eng- 
,'  be  assumed, 
;  set  of  mills 
■ction   of  the 
IV  be  claimed 
tment  of  the 
joner  or  later 
t  of  convert- 
try  or  section 
itions  otVered 
of  the   raw 

he  best  pros- 
children,  are 
)roblem  are 
other  kinds 
)1  system  of 
i  cost,  and  in 
rried  to  the 

England  are 
lunds  of  the 
kirope  buys 


fond  of  AnicMMca,  our  own  mills  must  have  the  advantngo  of 
jiroximity  to  the  Western  prairies.  In  respect  to  tlie  rents  of 
dwelling-houses  tliere  caiuiot  long  be  any  ditlereiice,  if  there  is 
any  at  present,  because  the  materials  for  construction  aie  most 
abundant  in  America.  Opportunity  for  other  work  than  that  of 
the  factory  must  contiiuie  for  many  generations,  and  until  this 
continent  is  peopled. 

In  comparing  our  power  to  compete  with  England  we  may 
claim  advantages  of  one  kind,  and  in  comparing  with  the  nations 
of  continental  Europe  we  may  claim  advantages  of  another  kind, 
in  some  respects  of  a  ditlerent  order.  In  competition  with  Eng- 
land, it  is  often  claimed  that  our  chief  advantage  lies  in  a  certain 
alleged  versatility  and  power  of  adapting  means  to  ends,  and  in 
great  cpiickness  of  perception  on  the  })art  of  working-people  in 
respect  to  tlie  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  adoption  of  new 
processes  or  inventions.  If  we  have  this  advantage,  tliere  must 
be  special  causes  for  it  in  the  influences  that  are  brougiit  to  bear 
upon  the  operatives  and  artisans  wlio  do  the  work  ;  for  a  \  erv 
large  proportion  of  them  arc  foreign-born,  or  are  tiie  children  of 
foreign  immigrants.  W  by  sliould  tliey  work  witli  any  more  zeal 
or  judii'mcnt  here  tiian  in  the  coinitries  whence  the\-  have  come? 
Why  are  Irish  and  French-Canadian  factory  bands  to  be  relied  on 
for  more  steady  work,  larger  product,  better  discipline,  and  more 
cleanly  and  wholesome  conditions  of  life  than  the  operatives  of 
England,  Belgiiun,  and  Germany?  To  me  it  appears  evident 
that  these  advanta<;es,  so  far  as  thcv  exist,  arc  clue  maiidv  to  the 
following  circumstances  :  — 

First.  Our  system  of  common  and  purely  secular  schools, 
attended  by  the  children  of  rich  and  poor  alike. 

Second.     Manhood  suflrage. 

Third.     The  easy  acquisition  of  land. 

F'ourth.  The  habit  of  saving  small  sums,  induced  by  the 
establishment  of  savin<;s-banks  throughout  the  manufacturinij 
States. 

Fifth.  The  absence  of  a  standing  army,  and  the  application 
of  the  revenue  derived  from  taxes  on  the  whole  to  useful  pur- 
poses. 

In  respect  to  the  first  of  these  influences,  the  public-school  sys- 
tem, the  foreign  observer  generally  takes  notice  only  of  the  tpiality 


W 


FP* 


Mfffi 


324 


SELECTIONS. 


■ 


lf!i 


#!| 


of  the  instruction  j^nvi-n,  and,  tliou^Ii  he  may  lind  soini-thinj;  to 
praise,  he  liiids  also  inueli  to  hhiiue.  lie  linds  in  many  cases  the 
iiistri'  tion  had  and  the  suhjccts  ot'ten  ill-choson,  and  he  wonders 
at  the  misdirection  of  a  force  that  inij^ht  he  so  mnch  more  wisely 
applied.  What  he  fails  to  notice  is  tiiat  tlie  school  itself,  entirely 
apart  Irom  its  instruction,  is  the  «,neat  educator  of  the  children 
who  attiiul  it.  The  school  is,  lirst  of  all,  no  respecter  of  persons  : 
the  stupid  son  of  a  rich  man,  led  in  every  class  hy  the  son  of  a 
mechanic,  cannot  in  after-lite  look  down  on  him  as  an  inferio 
whatever  the  conventional  position  of  the  two  may  be  ;  or,  if  the 
rich  man's  son  has  brains  as  well  as  fortune,  the  poor  man's  son 
can  never  attribute  to  fortune  only,  the  lead  that  he  may 
take  in  after-life.  The  school  is  thorou<j;hly  democratic,  and 
each  pupil  learns  in  it  tiiat  it  depends  on  himself  alone  what  place 
he  may  take  in  after-life,  anil  that,  althou<j^h  society  may  be  divided 
in.'co  planes,  there  is  no  system  of  caste  and  no  barrier  in  the  way 
of  social  success,  except  the  want  of  character  aiul  ability  to  at- 
tain it.  The  associations  of  the  common  school  utterly  prevent 
auN  thinjf  like  servility  in  the  relation  of  classes  in  after-life  ;  and 
althou»fh  it  is  sometimes  made  a  little  too  manifest  that  '"one  man 
is  as  jjfood  as  another,  and  a  little  better,"  on  the  part  of  those 
who  are  more  ea,i,'er  than  discreet  in  their  etlbrt  to  rise,  yet.  on  tl 
whole,  the  relation  of  the  various  classes,  which  must  in  t' 
nature  of  thinj^s  always  and  everywhere  exist,  is  that  of  mutual 
respect,  and  anythin<j  like  the  old-world  distinctions  of  caste  and 
raidv  would  seem  about  as  absurd  to  one  as  to  the  other.  Tiie 
common  school  is  the  solvent  of  race,  creed,  nationality,  and  con- 
dition. 

In  another  way,  the  discipline  of  the  school  alVects  the  processes 
of  maiuifacture.  In  the  sciiools,  cleanliness,  order,  and  re<j;ular 
habits  are  enforced,  with  deference  to  the  teachers  and  respect  for 
authority  ;  and,  in  these  later  years,  this  is  coupled  with  the 
teaching  of  music  and  drawing  in  all  the  principal  towns  and 
cities.  When  children  thus  trained  are  removed  to  the  mill  or 
the  workshop,  habits  of  order  and  cleanliness,  with  some  iesthetic 
taste,  are  abeady  established.  Nothing  strikes  an  American 
manufacturer  with  so  much  sinprise,  as  the  extreme  untidiness  of 
the  large  textile  mills  of  England  and  the  dreariness  of  the  factory 
towns.  In  tiiis  respect,  however,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
managers  of  the  New  England  mills  are  greatly  aidetl  by  the  ab- 
sence of  smoke,  the  coal  commonly  used  being  anthracite.     Much 


soiiU'tliiii^  to 
i;inv  cases  the 
1   he  wouik'is 
)  more  wisely 
itself,  entirely 
the   ihihhen 
er  of  persons  : 
the  son  of  u 
s  an   inl'erio 
he  ;  or,  it"  the 
oor  man's  son 
that  lie    may 
moeratic,   and 
»ne  what  |)lace 
iiay  he  diviiled 
ier  in  the  way 
1  ahility  to  at- 
itterly  prevent 
after-life  ;   and 
Lhat  '•  one  man 
part  of   those 
se,  yet.  on  tl 
1   must  in  t' 
hat  of  mutual 
s  of  caste  and 
■  other.      The 
dity,  and  con- 

the  processes 
•,  and   re<^ular 
[nd  respect  for 
)led    with   the 
lal  towns  and 
[o  the  mill  or 
Isome  a'sthetic 
Ian    American 
untidiness  of 
1  of  the  factory 
•ssed  that  the 
|ed  by  the  ab- 
acite.     Much 


J 


U.   S.    COTTON    MAM'FACTIKKS. 


325 


surprise  is  often  expressed  by  our  foreign  visitors,  at  the  amount 
of  decoration  permitted  in  the  tlttinj^  of  stationary  and  locomotive 
cn<^ines  and  in  much  of  oiu'  machinery  ;  but,  bad  as  the  taste  dis- 
played may  sometimes  be,  it  is  nevertherless  a  lact  that  such 
en^dnes  or  machines  aie  better  careil  for  and  kept  in  better  repair 
than  where  no  iiuliv  Iduality,  so  to  speak,  is  peiniilted.  On  one 
of  our  }^reat  railways  the  attempt  was  not  lon<;  since  maile  to  dis- 
patch the  lf)Comotives  as  they  happened  to  arrive  at  the  central 
station,  sometimes  with  one  and  sometimes  with  another  enj^ine- 
driver ;  but  the  immediate  and  u^reat  increase  in  the  repair  account 
caused  the  corp<»ration  to  return  very  soon  to  the  customarv  plan, 
of  }i[ivin}^  each  driver  a  particular  locomotive,  with  which  he  may 
be  identilied. 

The  instruction  of  the  school  also  <{ives  every  pupil  a  superticial 
knowledge,  if  no  more,  of  the  j^eo^raphy  ami  resources  of  the 
country,  which  the  universal  habit  of  readin^c  newspapers  keeps 
up.  Hence  comes  the  almost  entire  absence  of  any  li\ed 
character  in  the  labor  of  the  country  :  every  boy  believes  that  he 
can  achieve  success  somewhere  else,  if  not  at  home.  Xo  con<;es- 
tion  of  labor  can  last  loiiLj.  The  war  and  tiie  sucteedin<^  railwav 
mania  combincil,  concentrated  population  at  certain  points  to  a 
jjreater  extent  than  ever  happened  brforc,  and  it  has  taken  moie 
than  five  years  to  overcome  the  ilitVu  ilty  ;  Init  within  these  live 
vears  a  niillion  or  more  new  inhabita  s  in  '1\  \as,  half  a  million 
or  more  in  Kansas,  anil  probably  two  or  tiiree  millions  ailded 
to  the  population  of  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Minnesota,  and  the 
far  North-west,  indicate  that  the  evil  has  already  found  a 
remedy. 

It  is  already  apparent  that  a  very  slij^ht  increase  in  the  demand 
for  skilled  workmen  in  certain  branches  of  emplovment  would 
not  easily  be  met  in  the  Eastern  States,  except  by  drawint^  upon 
England  and  (iermany.  Durinjjf  the  years  of  depression,  the 
cessation  of  railway  building  and  the  use  of  the  excess  of  rail\va\ 
plant  existinjj  in  1S73  has  caused  the  disjjersion  of  a  huLje  por- 
tion of  the  trained  mechanics  and  artisans  who  then  did  the  work 
of  supplvin»if  this  demand  ;  but  these  are  not  the  men  who  have 
crowded  the  Eastern  cities  and  causeil  the  ap|)arent  excess  of 
laborers  out  of  work.  Such  men  have  yone  back  to  the  laud,  or 
in  the  new  States  and  Territories  have  found  other  ways  in  w  hich 
to  apply  their  skill  and  energy,  and  they  will  not  return.  It  may 
he  that  the  greatest  danger  to  the  manufacturers  of  England  w  ill 


Ah 


'it: 


iilr"! 


in  I 

1  ! 


II ;; 


1^1 


326 


SELECTIONS. 


not  be  in  our  competition  in  the  sale  of  goods  in  neutral  markets, 
but  in  our  competition  for  the  skilled  workmen  and  artisans  wlio 
make  these  goods,  when  we  offer  them  equal  or  higher  wages 
and  better  conditions  of  life  in  the  work  that  will  very  soon 
need  to  be  done  to  supply  the  increasing  demand  in  our  own 
country. 

The  patent  system  may  here  be  cited  also  as  a  factor  in  our  in- 
dustrial system.  It  has  been  carried  to  an  almost  absurd  extreme, 
so  that  it  is  not  safe  for  any  one  to  adopt  a  new  method,  machine, 
or  part  of  a  machine,  and  attempt  to  use  it  (juietly  and  without 
taking  out  a  patent,  lest  some  sharp  person,  seeing  it  in  use  and 
not  published,  shall  himself  secure  a  patent  and  come  back  to  the 
real  inventor  with  a  claim  for  royalty. 

Manhood  sutVrage,  subject  as  it  is  to  great  abuses,  and  difficult 
as  it  has  made  the  problem  of  the  self'-governmeiit  of  great  cities, 
where  voters  do  not  meet  each  other,  as  in  the  town-meeting, 
face  to  face,  but  where  the  powers  of  govennnent  are  of  necessity 
delegated  to  men  of  whom  the  voters  can  iiave  little  personal 
knowledge,  yet  works  distinctly  in  the  direction  oi'  the  safety, 
stability,  and  order  of  the  community.  Outside  of  two  or  three 
<>r  the  verv  largest  cities,  where  there  are  concentratetl  great 
masses  of  illiterate  citizens,  it  would  be  difficult  to  fiiul  a  case  of 
serious  abuse  of  the  power  of  taxation,  except  in  the  South  since 
tiie  war,  and  even  there  the  evil  is  now  mainly  abated. 

The  easy  accpiisition  of  land  throughout  the  countrv,  under 
simple  forms  of  conveyance,  registered  in  every  county,  gives  a 
motive  to  economv,  and  induces  habits  of  saving  that  are  of 
supreme  importance  in  their  elVect  on  society.  In  the  town  in 
wliich  I  live, —  and  in  which  I  can  remember  the  comingof  the  first 
Irishman  who  became  a  landowner,  —  out  of  about  >ne  thousand 
owners  of  real  estate,  over  two  hundred  are  of  Irish  birth  or  ex- 
traction. The  richest  one  among  them  came  from  Ireland  in 
1S46,  a  steerage  passenger.  He  now  pays  taxes  on  property  of 
the  value  of  $^0,000,  almost  all  in  real  estate.  His  son  is  super- 
intendent of  the  repairs  of  highways,  and  is  one  of  tl)e  most  effi- 
cient members  of  the  school  committee. 

During  the  last  thirty  years  the  factory  population  of  New 
England  has  passed  through  three  phases.  First  came  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  the  New  England  farmer ;  but  as  the  sewing- 
machine  and  other  inventions  opened  new  demands  for  women's 
work,  women  of  American  birth  passed  out  to  easier   or  better- 


lal  markets, 
rtisans  who 
ighcr  wages 
1  very  soon 
ill  our  own 

)r  in  our  in- 
mcl  extreme, 
)(1,  machine, 
and  without 
it  in  use  and 
;  back  to  the 

and  difficult 
■  great  cities, 
wn-meeting, 
.'  of  necessity 
ttle  personal 
)f  the  safety, 
two  or  three 
itrated  great 
ind  a  case  of 
.South  since 
d. 

|untry,  under 
mty,  gives  a 
tliat  are  of 
the  town  in 
Introf  the  first 
>iie  thousand 
l)irtli  or  ex- 
1  Ireland  in 
property  of 
Ison  is  super- 
lie  most  erti- 

lion   of  New 

|me  the  sons 

the  sewing- 

lor  women's 

ler   or  better- 


U.    S.   COTTON    MANUFACTURES. 


327 


paid  employment,  while  the  men  took  up  other  branches  recjuir- 
ing  more  individual  skill.  These  places  were  taken  mainly  bv 
Irish,  with  a  few  (Jermans  and  English.  IJut  as  the  Irish  saved 
their  earnings,  and  as  the  New  England  yeomen  emigrated  to  the 
richer  lands  of  the  great  West,  they  passed  out  of  the  mills  to  buy 
up  the  deserted  farms  of  the  poorer  North-eastern  States,  where, 
by  their  persistent  industry  and  manual  labor,  they  achieved  suc- 
cess and  gaineil  a  jK)sition  which  satisfied  them,  but  with  which 
the  native  New  Englander  is  no  longer  contented.  Their  places 
in  the  mills  are  now  being  more  and  more  taken  by  the  French 
Canadians,  who,  in  their  new  conditions  and  surroundings,  siiow 
little  of  the  stolid  and  unprogressive  character  which  has  kept 
them  so  long  contented  on  their  little  strips  of  land  (MI  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River.  In  the  very  air  they  breathe  they  seem  to  im- 
bibe a  new  and  restless  energy,  while  the  intelligence  shown  by 
their  children  in  the  schools  augurs  well  for  their  future  progress. 
On  the  whole  the  simplicity  of  our  system  of  land  tenure,  and 
the  ease  with  whici"  small  parcels  may  be  obtained,  must  be  rated 
among  the  most  important  factors  in  considering  our  possible  ad- 
vantage over  other  countries. 

Next  in  our  list  comes  the  savings-bank.  In  1S75,  out  of  the 
1,652.000  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts,  720,000  were  depositors 
in  savings-banks  to  the  amount  of  $238,000,000.  During  the 
late  years  of  depression  the  deposit  has  decreaseil  somewhat  in 
amount,  but  the  decrease  has  been  chiefiy  owing  to  the  with- 
drawal of  money  for  oilier  investment,  especially  in  United  States 
bonds.  There  have  been  some  failures  ot  banks  and  some  losses, 
as  migiit  well  have  been  expected,  but  they  have  been  less  than 
in  any  other  branch  of  business  ;  and  the  savings-liank  system 
stands  firmly  based  on  well-earned  confidence,  and  ofi'ers  an  easy 
means  of  saving  the  smallest  sums  to  every  man,  woman,  and 
child  in  the  State.  At  the  present  time  the  deposits  in  the  sav- 
ings-banks of  Massachusetts  amount  to  about  $.!4o,ooo,ooo,  owned 
by  about  750,000  persons. 

To  these  causes  of  quick  adaptation  to  any  conditions  that  may 
arise,  or  to  any  necessity  for  the  application  of  new  methods  or 
devices,  may  be  added  the  custom,  which  has  almost  the  force  of 
law,  of  an  equal  distribution  of  estates  among  the  children  of  the 
testator.  Tools  to  him  zv/io  can  use  them  is  the  imwrittcn  law  ; 
and  neither  land  nor  capitiil  can  remain  long  in  the  possession  of 
him  who  camiot  direct  or  use  them  wisely.     Liberty  to  distribute 


11 

i 


ifii 


mi 


ll  j 


III 


328 


SELECTIONS. 


is  esteemed  as  important  a  factor  in  our  body-politic  as  liberty  to 
accumulate,  even  though  the  liberty  may  sometimes  lead  to  the 
apparent  waste  of  great  fortunes. 

Finally,  it  must  be  held  that  our  freedom  from  the  blood-tax  of 
a  standing  army,  and  the  fact  that  the  proceeds  of  taxation  are, 
on  the  whole,  usefully  and  productively  expended,  are  among  our 
greatest  advantages  ;  and  this  is  asserted  with  conf^denc(^  notwith- 
standing the  misgovernment  of  some  great  cities  and  of  several  of 
the  Southern  States.  What  are  these  failures  but  proofs  of  the 
general  confidence  of  the  people  in  local  self-government?  Great 
frauds  and  great  abuses  can  only  happen  where  integrity  is  the 
common  rule;  and  where  each  man  distrusts  his  neighbor,  or 
each  town,  city,  or  State  distrusts  the  next,  the  opportunity  for 
fraud  or  breach  of  trust  cannot  occur.  The  use  of  inconvertible 
paper  money  during  many  years  lias  not  been  without  its  neces- 
sary malign  result  upon  the  character  of  the  people,  and  the  news- 
papers are  filled  with  the  fraud  and  corruption  that  have  come  to 
light ;  but  no  newspaper  has  ever  yet  recorded  one  fact  that  off- 
sets many  frauds :  In  the  great  Boston  fire,  one  of  the  Boston 
banks  lost  not  only  every  book  of  account,  but  every  security  and 
note  that  was  in  its  vaults,  amounting  to  over  $1,250,000.  On 
the  morning  after  the  fire,  its  officers  had  no  evidence  or  record  by 
which  any  of  the  persons  or  corporators  who  owed  it  money  could 
be  held  to  their  contracts  ;  yet,  within  a  very  short  time,  duplicate 
notes  were  voluntarily  brought  in  by  its  debtors,  many  of  whom 
knew  not  whether  they  could  ever  pay  them,  because  the  fire  had 
destroyed  their  own  property,  and  the  known  ultimate  loss  of  that 
bank  from  the  burning  of  its  books  and  securities  was  less  than 
$10,000. 

Our  army  is  but  a  border  police.  Although  its  officers  are 
held  in  honor  and  esteem,  military  life  is  not  a  career  that  very 
many  seek,  anil  as  time  goes  on  it  will  become  an  occupation  less 
and  less  to  be  desired.  Thus  we  are  spared  not  oidy  the  tax  for 
its  support,  but  the  worse  tax  of  the  withdrawal  of  its  members 
from  useful  and  productive  pursuits.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  we 
claim  our  greatest  advantage  over  the  nati(;ns  of  continental 
Europe.  What  have  we  to  fear  from  the  competition  of  Ger- 
many, if  we  really  undertake  to  beat  her  in  the  neutral  markets, 
which  we  can  reach  as  readily  as  she  can.?  For  a  little  while,  the 
better  instruction  of  the  merchants  in  her  technical  and  commer- 
cial schools  may  give  her  advantage ;  but  that  can  be  overcome  in 


U.    S.   COTTON   MANUFACTURES. 


3:19 


IS  liberty  to 
lead  to  the 

jlood-tax  of 

:»xation  are, 

among  our 

:<%  notwith- 

if  several  of 

loofs  of  the 

ent?    Great 

:<rritv  is  the 

eighbor,  or 

ortiinity  for 

iconvertible 

it  its  neces- 

(1  the  news- 

ive  come  to 

■act  that  ofl- 

the  Boston 

security  and 

0,000.     On 

record  by 

loney  could 

tiuplicate 

of  whom 

le  fire  had 

OSS  of  that 

less  than 

fHcers  are 

that  very 

nation  less 

the  tax  for 

s  members 

ct  that  we 

ontinental 

)n  of  Ger- 

markets, 

while,  the 

1  commer- 

ercome  in 


a  single  generation,  or  as  soon  as  the  need  is  felt  with  us,  as  it  is 
now  bcgiimiisg  to  be  felt.  After  we  shall  have  supj^lied  our 
present  want  of  technical  education,  the  mere  ditVerence  between 
the  presence  of  a  great  army  on  her  soil  and  its  necessary  support, 
and  the  absence  of  such  a  tax  on  us,  will  constitute  the  diHerence 
on  which  modern  commerce  turns.  When  the  traffic  of  the  world 
turns  on  half  a  cent  a  yard,  a  cent  a  bushel,  or  a  half-penny  a 
pound  on  the  great  staples,  no  nation  can  long  succeed  in  holding 
a  traffic  that  is  handicapped  with  a  standing  army.  The  protec- 
tion of  Germany  from  our  competition  in  neutral  markets  may  be 
ofiset  in  our  yet  more  dangerous  competition  for  men.  The  Ger- 
man already  knows  Texas,  and  in  the  one  block  of  60,000  square 
miles  of  land  by  which  the  State  of  Texas  exceeds  the  area  of  the 
German  empire,  we  offer  room  and  healthy  conditions  of  life  for 
millions  of  immigrants;  and,  if  they  come  in  sufficient  ninnbers, 
they  can  raise  on  that  single  square  of  land  as  much  cotton  as  is 
now  raised  in  the  whole  South,  that  is  to  say,  5,000.000  bales  ;  and 
as  much  wheat  as  is  now  raised  in  the  whole  North,  that  is  to  say, 
400,000,000  bushels,  and  yet  subsist  themselves  beside  on  what 
is  left  of  this  little  patch  that  will  not  be  needed  for  these  two 
crops. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  even  the  least  imaginative  cannot  but  be 
moved  by  the  influences  that  liave  been  designated,  and  that  versa- 
tility and  readiness  to  adopt  every  labor-saving  device  will  not 
only  be  promoted,  but  will  be  absolutely  forced  into  action,  when 
such  vast  areas  are  to  be  occupied,  and  when  even  tiie  dullest  boy 
is  educated  in  the  belief  tliat  he  also  is  to  be  one  of  tliose  who  are 
to  build  up  this  nation  to  the  full  measure  of  its  high  calling.  We 
may  not  dare  to  boast,  in  view  of  all  we  have  passed  through  ; 
but  we  know  that  slavery  has  been  destroyed,  and  that  the  nation 
lives  stronger,  truer,  and  more  vigorous  than  ever  betbre.  We 
know  that  it  has  been  reserved  for  a  democratic  republic  to  be  the 
first  among  nations  that,  having  issued  government  notes  and 
made  them  a  legal  tender,  has  resumed  payment  in  coin  witliout 
repudiation  or  reduction  of  the  promise.  We  know  that  we  have 
paid  nearly  a  half  of  our  great  national  debt  already,  and  that  the 
rest  is  now  maitdy  held  by  our  own  citizens.  We  believe  that 
within  the  lives  of  men  of  middle  age  now  living,  the  nation  will 
number  one  hundred  millions,  and  that,  in  whatever  else  we  may 
be  found  wanting,  we  cannot  long  be  kept  back  in  our  career 
of  material  prosperity,  which  shall  be  shared  with  absolute  cer- 


P 


\m 


.11 

I 


330 


SELECTIONS, 


taitity  by  every  one  who  brings  to  the  work  health,  intepfrity,  and 
energy. 

If  there  is  any  force  in  tliis  reasoning,  our  competition  with 
other  manufacturing  countries,  in  the  supplying  of  neutral  markets 
with  manufactured  goods,  will  not  be  compassed  by  the  low  rates 
of  wages  paid  to  our  factory  operatives  or  to  the  working-people 
engaged  in  our  metal  works  and  other  occupations,  but  first  by 
obtaining  and  keeping  such  an  advanced  position  in  the  applica- 
tion and  use  of  improved  tools  and  machinery,  as  shall  make  high 
wages  consistent  with  a  low  cost  of  production  ;  secondly,  by  our 
ability  to  obtain  the  raw  materials  at  low  cost.  Every  employer 
knows  that  among  employes  who  are  paid  by  the  piece,  it  is  the 
operative  that  gains  the  largest  earnings  whose  production  costs 
the  least,  because  under  the  control  of  such  operatives  the  machin- 
ery is  most  effectively  guided  during  working  hours.  As  it  is 
with  single  operatives,  so  it  is  with  large  masses ;  if  well  in- 
structed, and  working  under  the  incentives  to  industry  and  frugal- 
ity that  have  been  named,  Iheir  large  product  will  earn  for  them 
ample  wages,  and  yet  result  in  a  low  cost  of  labor  to  the  employer. 
Such  workmen  never  have  any  "  blue  Monday."  The  work- 
man who  in  this  country  habitually  becomes  intoxicated  is  soon 
discharged,  and  his  place  is  filled  by  one  who  respects  him- 
self and  values  his  place  too  much  to  risk  his  position  in  dis- 
sipation. 

Competition  with  England  in  supplying  the  markets  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  South  America  with  cotton  goods,  is  now  perhaps  the 
best  criterion  by  which  to  gauge  our  ability  to  compete  in  other 
branches  of  manufacture.  It  has  been  often  assumed  in  England, 
that  the  increasing  shipments  of  cotton  goods  from  this  country 
have  been  forced  by  necessity,  and  merely  consisted  of  lots  sold 
below  cost,  as  a  means  of  obtaining  ready  money  ;  but  there  is  no 
ground  whatever  for  this  general  assumption,  even  though  some 
small  shipments  may  have  been  made  at  first  with  this  view.  Our 
export  of  cotton  fabrics  amounts  as  yet  to  but  7  or  8  per  cent,  of 
our  production,  and  is  but  a  trifle  compared  to  that  of  Great 
Britain  ;  but  it  is  not  made  at  a  loss,  and  it  constitutes  a  most  im- 
portant element  in  the  returning  prosperity  of  our  cotton-mills. 
The  goods  exported  are  mostly  made  by  strong  apd  prosperous 
corporations,  paying  regular  dividends,  and  consist  mainly  of 
coarse  sheetings  and  drills,  which  are  sold  by  the  manufacturers 
to  merchants,  who  send  them  to  China,  Africa,  and  South  America 


u.  s.  corroN  manufactures. 


331 


cjifrity,  and 

;tition  with 
ral  markets 
le  low  rates 
Ling-people 
but  first  by 
he  applica- 
make  high 
dly,  by  our 
y  employer 
:e,  it  is  the 
jction  costs 
the  machiti- 
.  As  it  is 
if  well  in- 
and  frugal- 
rn  for  them 
3  employer. 
The  work- 
ited  is  soon 
pects  him- 
ion  in  dis- 

ts  of  Asia, 
>erhaps  the 
te  in  other 
England, 
lis  countrv 
)f  lots  sold 
there  is  no 
ough  some 
view.   Our 
er  cent,  of 
of  Great 
a  most  im- 
tton-mills. 
rosperous 
Tiainly  of 
ufacturers 
America 


in  payment  for  tea,  silk,  ivory,  sugar,  gums,  hides,  and  wool. 
They  are  not  made  by  operatives  who  earn  less  than  the  recent  or 
present  rates  of  wages  in  England,  but  in  most  departments  of  the 
mills  by  those  who  earn  equal  wages,  or  even  more.  This  com- 
petition had  been  fairly  begun  before  the  late  war  in  this  country, 
but  it  is  now  continued  under  better  conditions.  The  mills  of 
New  England,  owing  to  tlirough  connections  by  rail,  are  now 
relatively  much  nearer  the  cotton-fields  than  they  were  then. 
Prior  to  i860  substantially  all  the  cotton  went  to  the  seaports  of 
the  cotton  States,  and  from  there  the  cost  of  moving  it  to  the  North 
or  to  Liverpool  varied  but  little ;  but  at  the  present  day  a  large 
and  annually-increasing  portion  of  the  cotton  used  in  tiie  North  is 
bought  in  the  interior  markets,  and  is  carried  in  covered  cars 
directly  to  the  mills,  where  the  bales  are  delivered  clean,  and 
much  more  free  from  damage  and  waste  tlian  tliose  which  are 
carried  down  the  Southern  rivers  on  boats  and  barges,  dumped 
upon  the  wharves,  and  then  compressed  to  the  utmost  for  ship- 
ment by  sea. 

In  proof  that  this  advantage  is  an  actual  one,  the  following 
example  may  be  cited  :  A  contract  has  just  been  made  for  the 
transportation  of  a  large  quantity  of  cotton  from  Texas  to  Liver- 
pool at  the  rate  of  $1.10  per  100  pounds,  the  proportion  assigned 
to  the  land  carriage  being  70  cents,  to  transsiiipment  in  Boston 
and  to  the  steamship  40  cents ;  the  rate  of  marine  insurance  is 
three-eighths  of  1  per  cent.,  and  the  cost  of  handling  in  Liverpool, 
and  transportation  to  Manchester,  not  less  than  a  quarter  of  a 
cent  per  pound.  Bargains  may  be  made  to  bring  cotton  from  the 
same  point  in  Texas  to  the  principal  factory  cities  of  New  England 
at  the  rate  assigned  to  the  land  carriage,  namely  70  cents  per  100 
pounds.  This  cotton  is  brought  from  the  interior  towns  of  Texas 
to  Boston,  and  cannot  be  carried  to  Liverpool  by  way  of  Galves- 
ton or  Ne  V  Orleans  so  cheaply,  else  it  would  not  come  this  way. 
Assuming  the  bale  to  weigh  500  pounds,  at  lo  cents  a  pound,  we 
have  the  following  comparative  cost :  — 


li 


III  if 


332 


SELECTIONS. 


LOWELL. 


Cost  of  cotton  in  Texas,  500  pounds,  at  10 
cents,  including  all  local  char<(es 

Freijifht  to  Lowell  in  a  covered  locked  car,  in 
which  the  cotton  is  protected  from  rain, 
mud,  and  other  causes  of  waste,  at  70  cents 
per  100  pounds         ..... 

J-  oiai    *.••*•. 


Per  bale. 


$50   00 


3  50 


Per  cwt. 


$53  50        $10  70 


'i 


m 


WW 


LANCASHIRE. 


500  pounds,  at  10  cents,  including  all  local 

charges     .......     $50  00 

Freight  from  Texas  to  Liverpool,  at  $1.10 

per  100  pounds  .         .         .         .         .         5  50 

Insurance  at  three-eighths  of  i  |per  cent,  on 

$5^  .......  21 

Transshipment  in  Liverpool,  and  freight  to 

Lancashire,  one-fourth  of  a  cent        .         .         '25 


Total    . 


$56  96 


"  39 


Advantage  of  Lowell  over  Lancashire  .         .       $3  46  v$o  69 


There  may  be  changes  in  the  rates,  but  it  does  not  seem  prob- 
able that  the  relation  of  the  land  to  the  ocean  rate  can  be  much 
changed,  and  it  would  therefore  appear  that  the  New  England 
manufacturer  will  have  a  permanent  advantage  in  the  price  of 
American  cotton  of  any  given  grade,  varying  from  6  to  8  per  cent, 
as  the  price  of  cotton  may  vary  from  12  to  9  cents  per  pound  ;  and 
this  advantage  may  be  equal  to  15  or  25  per  cent,  in  ability  to 
pay  wages,  as  the  cost  of  labor  varies  from  a  quarter  to  a  third 
in  the  total  cost  of  coarse  and  medium  goods,  such  as  constitute 
the  chief  part  of  the  demand  of  the  world. 

It  maybe  said  that  this  proves  too  much,  and  that  the  cotton  spin- 
ners of  the  Southern  States  will  have  the  same  relative  advantage 
over  New  England.  Let  this  be  freely  admitted  :  We  are  treating 
the  question  of  the  future  supremacy  of  the  United  States  in  the 
manufacture  as  well  as  in  the  growth  of  cotton,  and  if  the  future 


U.    S.    COTTON    MANUFACTURES. 


233 


>nlc. 


OO 


oo 

50 

21 

)6 
f6 


Per  cwt. 


50 
50  $10    70 


"  39 
v$o  69 


)t  seem  prob- 

can  be  nmch 
STew  England 

the  price  of 
to  8  per  cent. 
r  pound  ;  and 

in  ability  to 
ter  to  a  third 

as  constitute 

e  cotton  spin- 
ve  advantage 
s  are  treating 
States  in  the 
if  the  future 


changes  in  population,  wealth,  and  condition  of  the  dirterent  sec- 
tions of  this  country  shall,  in  the  future,  cause  the  increase  of 
spindles,  especially  in  coarse  fabrics,  to  be  planted  in  the  healthy 
h.ll  country  of  northern  Georgia,  eastern  Tennessee,  and  the 
Carolinas,  it  will  simply  be  the  greater  evidence  that  natural  laws 
are  paramount.  If  Georgia  has  twice  the  advantage  over  Lanca- 
shire  that  New  England  now  possesses  it  will  onlv  be  the  fault 
of  the  people  of  Georgia  if  they  do  not  reap  the  bencHt  of  it. 

It  has  been  stated  that  our  present  rates  of  wages  in  our  cotton 
factories  are  higher  than  they  were  in  1S60,  and  with  our  in- 
creasing  prosperity  they  will  tend  to  advance ;  but  at  the  same 
time  the  cost  of  the  labor  in  the  finished  fabric  /,as  been  reduced 
by  the  greater  productive  power  of  the  machinery.  The  fabrics 
upon  which  by  far  tlie  largest  part  of  the  spi.uilJs  and  lo,)ms  of 
the  country  are  operated,  may  be  divided  substantially  into  the 
following  classes :  — 

1.  The  printing-cloth,  28  inches  wide  and  7  vards  to  the 
pound.  The  cost  of  mill  labor  in  making  this  fabric,  includi^i- 
the  salaries,  wages,  or  earnings  of  everv  one  employed,  is  now 
less  than  one  cent,  or  a  half-penny,  a  yard. 

2.  The   heavy  sheeting,  36  inches  wide,  and    the  heavy  drill 
30  inches  wide,  each  weighing  from  2^  to  3  vards  to  the  pound. 
The  cost  of  mill  labor  in  making  these  fabrics  is  about  i  V^  cents 
per  yard. 

3.  Shirtings  and  sheetings,  30  to  36  inches  wide,  Nos.  20  to  30 
yarns,  each  weighing  from  3  to  4  yards  to  the  pound.  The  cost 
of  mill  labor  in  these  goods  is  from  ij^  to  2  cents  per  yard. 

4-  The  fine  sheeting  or  shirting,  from  30  to  40  inches  wide, 
Nos.  30  to  40  yarns,  weighing  from  3  to  4  vards  to  the  pound. 
The  cost  of  mill  labor  in  these  goods  is  from  1%  to  x  cents  per 
yard.  * 

5.  Fabrics  of  a  similar  kind  to  the  above,  from  i  to  3  yards  wide. 

6.  Heavy  cotton  duck,  cotton  grain-bags,  cotton"  hose,  and 
other  special  articles. 

7.  Blue  denims,  stripes,  tickings,  brown  denims  and  duck,  and 
other  heavy  colored  goods,  su])stantial  ginghams,  cottonades,  and 
other  fancy  woven   fabrics  of  medium  or  heavy  weight. 

These  seven  classes  comprise  more  than  95  per  cent,  of  our 
cotton  fabrics  in  weight;  to  them  are  to  be  added  lawns,  woven 
tabric  of  light  weight  for  dresses,  and  spool-cotton. 


plf 

■   ' 

1 

« 


ill'' 


334 


SELECTIONS. 


Ill  respect  of  one-half  of  these  fabrics,  being  those  of  the  heavier 
grade,  our  proximity  to  the  cotton-fiehl,  computed  at  not  less  than 
half  a  cent  per  pound,  oftener  three-quarters,  will  enable  the  New 
England  manufacturer  to  pay  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  higher 
wages  and  yet  to  make  the  gootls,  other  things  being  eciual,  at  the 
same  cost  as  his  competitor  in  Lancashire.  On  a  large  portion 
of  the  other  kinds  tliis  advantage  in  the  cost  of  cotton  would  be 
from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

The  natural  advantages  cannot  work  immediate  results ;  the 
ways  and  means  of  a  great  commerce  cannot  be  improvised  in  a 
year,  hardly  in  a  generation.  Much  depends  on  the  wisdom  of 
our  legislators  in  framing  the  acts  under  which  our  taxes  are 
collected,  whether  customs  or  excise,  and  yet  more  upon  our 
adherence  to  a  specie  basis  in  our  currency  ;  but  in  th»'  long  run 
the  only  reason  why  we  shall  not  assume  a  constantly-increasing 
share  in  the  cotton  tnanufacture  of  the  world  will  be  the  free 
choice  that  our  country  oHers  for  other  occupatiops  of  a  more 
profitable  or  more  desirable  kind. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  small  proportion  of  fine  spin- 
ning in  the  United  States.  Within  the  last  few  years  great  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  spinning  and  weaving  fabrics  of  Nos.  60 
to  100,  such  as  lawns  and  fine  dress  goods,  and  also  in  spinning 
fine  yarn  for  spool-cotton.  In  the  latter  direction  yarns  as  fine  as 
No.  120  are  now  spun  on  the  ring  spinning-frame,  a  machine 
invented  in  this  country  and  more  used  than  any  other  for  warp 
spinning,  and  now  being  adopted  in  Europe.  Yarns  as  fine  as  550 
are  spun  on  mules  for  three-cord  sewing-cotton,  and  for  experi- 
ment much  finer  counts  have  been  reached.  It  has  often  been  alleged 
that  fine  yarns  could  not  be  as  well  spun  in  the  United  States,  as 
in  England,  owing  to  the  dry  and  electrical  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year.  This  difficulty 
has  existed  in  some  degree,  although  not  so  as  to  preclude  fine 
work  if  it  had  been  profitable  to  undertake  it ;  but  as  far  as  this 
difficulty  existed  it  has  lately  been  entirely  removed  by  the  inven- 
tion of  a  very  simple  and  inexpensive  apparatus  for  moistening 
the  air  with  the  finest  spray  of  pure  cold  water,  by  which  method 
the  air  of  a  spimiing  or  weaving-room  may  be  kept  at  any  desired 
degree  of  humidity  in  the  driest  day,  so  that  the  adverse  effect 
of  electricity  is  entirely  overcome. 

Whenever  the  condition  and  extension  of  our  market  will  war- 
rant the  undertaking,  there  is  now  no  obstacle  to  our  manufactur- 


U.    S.    C()TTOx\   MANUFACTURES. 


335 


ing  any  variety  of  cotton  fabric  that  is  in  demand,  cither  coarse 
or  hne. 

While  it  may  not  be  worth  while  to  give  historical  statistics  in 
relation  to  the  cotton  manufacture  of  this  country  in  the  pres- 
ent  report,  a  few  words  may  well  be  devoted  to  chan-es  in  the 
work,  which  have  conduced  not  only  to  the  welfare  of  the  people, 
but  to  the  welfare  of  the  operatives  also. 

When  the  cotton  manufacture  was  first  established  in  the 
United  States  water-power  was  considered  essential  to  the  work, 
and  as  a  rule,  the  location  of  mills  was  limited  to  narrow  valleys, 
or  places  where  there  was  room  onlv  for  mills  of  several  stories 
'n  hei^rht.  The  first  mills  built  were  very  considerable  structures 
tor  the.r  time,  but  they  were  low-studded,  badly  lij^hted,  and 
were  heated  by  stoves  ;  and  in  these  mills  the  c^peratives  were  com~ 

peiled  to  work  under  arduous  con.htions  (owin- to  the  imperfection 
of  the  machinery)  thirteen  to  fourteen  hoins  a  day.  These  narrow 
structures  were  in  some  phices  built  seven  storiJs  in  height.  Ml 
the  plans  were  made  with  reference  to  this  form  of  Structure 
whether  the  mill  was  to  be  operated  by  water-jx.wer  or  by  steami 
until  quite  a  recent  period.  In  i860  the  -  normal  "  cotton-mill 
(so  to  speak)  had  become  a  factory  four  or  five  stories  hi^di, 
alHH.t  60  feet  wide,  varying  in  length  according  to  the  amounrof 
machinery,  high-studded,  well  lighted,  thoroughly  well  venti- 
lated,  and  heated  by  radiation  from  steam-pipes. 

In  1S66  the  macliine  for  sizing  yarn,  known  as  the  "slasher  " 
was  first  imported,  displacing  the  machine  known  as  the 
;'  clresser.  "    In  the  use  of  the  slasher  one  man  and  a  boy  workin- 


in  a  thoroughly   well-ventilated 


beat,  took  the  place  of  seven  or   ei<'-ht 


room,    at   a   moderate    dej/rec  of 


ously    employed    in    tl 


men  who   had  f 


)een  previ- 
le    same  work    in  a  room    which    was    of 


necessity  kept  at  over  100°  F.,  the  atmosphere  saturated  wit! 
starch.     This  change  removec 
of    work    from     the    cotton    f 
apparatus  for  the  removal  of  dust  f 


1  sour 


inge  removed   the  oidy  really  objectionable  kind 


ictory.       In   the   earl 


ier    mills     the 


perfect,  but  to-d 


Tom  the  factory  \y 


»y  every   room,   even    inclu(lin<r  t 


the  cotton   is  opened,  is  substantially  f 


IS  yery  ini- 


lose    in  which 


pens   that  the  degree  of  heat  and  of  humid 
best  work   of  tlie  cotton   factory  is 
measure  to  the  health   of  th 


ree  from   dust;    and  it  hap- 


ity    re(iuiied    for   the 


than  may  be  desirable. 

At  the  present  time  another  chan"-e  is  i 


■y  IS  one  which   conduces  in  great 
e  operative,  perhaps  a  little   warmer 


n  progress.     The  use  of 


l>>:  I   ^ 


w 


LU  !' 


33O 


SKI.ECTIONS. 


I 


watcr-povvcr  is  becomiiifj  less,  its  development  for  the  purpose 
of  sale  havinj^  never  proved  profital)le.  The  power  thus  developed 
lias  hecii  a  valuable  auxiliary  in  the  workin^j  of  the  factory,  hut  as 
a  matter  of  investment  the  development  of  land  and  water-power 
tof^ether  JKive  almost  without  exception  failed  to  be  profitable. 

The  great  progress  in  the  construction  of  the  steam-engine  and 
in  the  economy  of  fuel  is  steadily  working  towards  a  change  to 
steam  as  the  principal  motive-power  for  tiie  cotton  factory.  An 
incidental  advantage  in  this  change  is  that  the  factory  may  be 
placed  nearer  tf)  the  principal  Jiiarkets.  vviiere  it  can  be  more 
conveniently  supervised  and  more  easily  reached.  The  use  of 
steam  also  renders  a  choice  of  location  perfectly  feasible;  and  the 
model  factory,  one  or  two  stories  high,  may  l)e  placed  upon  a 
level  plain,  and  can  be  more  easily  lighted  and  ventilated  and 
more  economically  operated  than  when  any  other  f'^rm  of  l)uild- 
ing  is  used.  Under  these  new  conditions  better  dwellings  for  the 
operatives,  less  crowded,  can  also  be  provided,  and  in  every 
respect  the  work  can  be  conducted  under  better  conditions. 

At  the  present  time  the  hours  of  labor  in  New  l^^ngland,  where 
most  of  the  cotton  manufacturing  is  done,  vary  from  ten  to  eleven 
hours  per  day.  This  great  change  has  been  brought  about  l)y  a 
gradual  comprehension  of  the  best  conditions  both  for  the  laborer 
and  for  the  capitalist,  and  without  much  regard  to  legislation.  It 
is  probable  that  ere  long  ten  hours  will  be  the  limit  of  factory 
work  throughout  New  England,  either  by  process  of  legislation 
or  through  tiie  conviction  on  the  part  of  employers  that  any  longer 
hours  are  not  profitable,  —  a  conclusion  to  which  many  have 
already  come. 

A  great  change  has  also  in  the  progress  of  time  b'^cn  atVected 
in  the  dwelliuj^s  in  which  the  factory  operatives  live,  in  part  tend- 
ing towards  better  conditions,  in  part  to  worse  conditions.  On 
the  whole  there  has  been  less  average  progress  in  this  direction 
than  in  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  mills  themselves. 
The  choice  of  position,  howe\er,  which  is  now  given  by  the 
greater  use  of  steam,  gives  better  opportunities  for  scattering  tiie 
dwelling-houses  over  a  wider  area  at  little  cost. 

A  more  abundant  supply  and  choice  of  food  has  been  etlected  in 
this  as  in  all  other  branches  of  work,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the 
operatives,  by  the  consolidation  and  more  efl'eclive  service  of 
railroads.  The  average  work  of  a  male  operative  over  sixteen 
years  of  age  in  textile  factory  will  earn  enough  in  a  day  to  pay  for 


r.    S.    COTTON'    MANTFACnKKS. 


337 


r  the  purpose 
Inis  developed 
factory,  l)iit  as 
1  water-power 
prolitaUle. 
mi-en<^iiie  and 
Is  a  change  to 
I  factory.  An 
actory  may  be 
,   can  be  more 

The  use  of 

sil)le  ;  and  tlie 

phiced  upon  a 

.entihited    and 

form  of  biiild- 

elUnjifs  for  the 

and    in  every 

ulitions. 

n<;land,  where 

n  ten  to  eleven 

fht  about  by  a 

for  the  laliorer 

ejrislation.      It 

in  it  of  factory 

of  lejj^islation 

at  any  longer 

many    have 

b'^en  atVected 

in  part  tend- 

iiditions.     On 

this  direction 

s  themselves. 

given   by  the 

scattering  the 

jcn  ertected  in 
l)eneHt  of  the 
ve  service  of 
over  sixteen 
lay  to  pay  for 


the  transportation  of  meat  and  bread  for  one  year,  one  thousand 
miles,  or  from  Chicago  to  Lowell,  Lawrence,  or  Fall  River.  So 
far  as  cost  is  concerned,  the  great  lields  of  the  West  and  the  fac- 
tories of  the  East  are  in  closer  proximity  than  if  the  factory  de- 
pended for  its  food  upon  its  own  immediate  neighborhood,  when 
served  only  by  wagon-roads.  Tiie  same  ciiango  wiiicli  have  so 
greatly  reiluced  the  railway  charges  between  I'2ast  and  West  are 
now  taking  [ilace  between  North  and  South.  'J'he  charge  for 
moving  cotton  is  becoming  less  year  bv  year,  and  it  will  soon 
matter  little  where  the  cotton  factory  is  placed,  so  far  as  distance 
between  the  Held  and  the  factory  is  concerned.  The  choice  maybe 
made  so  as  to  secure  the  stimul.is  of  a  moderately  cold  climate,  in 
which  in-door  labor  is  more  to  be  desired  tiian  out-do(jr,  in  which 
the  humidity  ol"  the  atmosphere  is  measurably  uniform  or  is  not 
subject  to  extremes,  and  where  facilities  for  repairs  on  machinerv 
are  close  at  hand,  and  the  populaticni  is  sutliciently  dense  toassure 
an  ade(|uate  and  constant  su])ply  of  operati\es, —  mills  which  aie 
much  isolated  always  working  at  a  disadvantage. 

(jreat  changes  of  a  benelicial  kind  can  now  be  ibreseeii  in  the 
application  of  electricity  t(j  the  lighting  of  the  factorv.  Tiie  de- 
velopments in  this  direction  are  also  such,  that,  whatever  the 
relative  cost  of  the  electric  light  as  compared  to  gas  ma\  be,  it  is 
yet  so  benelicial  in  other  respects,  that  no  factory  manager  can 
well  afford  to  dispense  with  it,  not  only  because  of  the  more  per- 
fect work  which  its  use  assures,  but  because  the  chcjice  of  the 
operative  in  selecting  the  place  in  which  to  work  will  render  the 
use  of  the  electric  light  almost  a  matter  of  necessity. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  progress  in  the  art  of 
manufacturing  cotton  fabrics  in  the  last  forty  years  has  been  very 
great,  distinctly  sustaining  the  rule  which  affects  all  the  arts  to 
which  modern  machinery  can  be  applied,  namely,  that,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  eflectiveness  of  capital  in  tiie  form  of  machinery 
and  the  freedom  with  which  it  may  be  applied,  the  cost,  of  pro- 
duction is  lessened  and  the  consumer  is  served  more  cheaplv  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wages  of  the  ojjeratives  are  in- 
creased, the  conditions  of  work  made  better,  and  the  identity  of 
interests  between  labor  and  capital  are  established. 

It  mav  be  said  that  in  tlie  absence  of  any  artificial  obstructions 
to  tratlic  l:)etween  States  or  nations,  the  truest  guide  to  the  j)lace 
where  the  lowest  cost  of  production  is  compasseil  may  be  found 
by  ascertaining  where  the  wages  of  labor  are  the  highest,  and  the 


'»,  fi 


338 


SKLECTIONS. 


C()iuliti()iis  of  life  tlic  l)i'st ;  that  ;it  thai  point  the  lowest  cost  of 
prochiction  imist  he  found,  for  this  reason:  both  wa^es  and  profits 
are  derived  from  the  sale  of  the  tiling  produced  ;  hence  it  fol- 
lows that  where  the  natural  conditions  of  production    are    l»est, 


tl 


le   in 


ichinery  most    ell'ective,  and  tlie     labor  the    most   intelli- 


gent and  skilful,  the  product  will  he  largest  at  the  least   elVort 
to  those    who   tlo   the    work,    and    when    the    division    of    this 


pr 


0( 


luct 


is  made  under   the   conditions  of  ahsolutely   free   com- 


2)etition,  the  relative  pro[)ortion  which  ca|)ital  can  secure  to  itselt 
will  be  least,  even  thouj^h  its  absolute  share  be  j^'ieater  and  j^reater 
as  the  years  go  on  ;  but   the  share  which  the  laborer  will  receive 


b 


Avill  increase  year  hy  year,  l)oth  al)solutelv  and  relatively.  As 
capital  increases  the  absolute  sum  of  prolits  is  greater,  but  the 
relative  share  of  the  jiroduct  secured  by  capital  becomes  less. 
The  increase  of  capital  and  its  ellective  use  by  skilled  laborers 
assure  a  larger  production,  and  the  workman  ol)tains  a  larger 
share  of  a  larger  product,  measured  in  kind  or  in  wages  paid  in 
money.  In  the  cotton-mill,  as  well  as  in  many  other  arts,  special 
skill  is  reciuired,  but  jierhaps  less  general  intelligence;  therefore  a 
lower  grade  of  operatives  may  be  employed  from  time  to  time  as 
the  machinery  becomes  more  automatic,  but  at  a  steadily-increas- 
ing rate  of  wages.  Invention  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  enable  all 
coiulitions  of  men  to  attain  a  higher  plane  of  material  welfare, 
and  as  one  class  passes  from  the  factory  to  other  occupations 
which  oiler  better  coiulitions  of  life,  new  improvements  enable 
those  who  could  not  do  the  factory  work  before,  to  undertake 
and  carry  it  on.  Thus  it  has  been  in  the  past,  since  the  farmers' 
daughters  of  New  England  left  the  factory  in  which,  with  much 
longer  hours  of  work,  they  earned  only  about  one-half  the  wages 
now  paid  ;  but  those  who  have  succeeded  them  could  not  then 
have  been  capable  of  doing  the  work  at  all  which  they  now  so 
easily  accomplish. 


i    ! 


r.    S.    IRON    AND    STKKI.    INDrSTRIKS. 


3.v; 


vest  cost  nf 
and  profits 
ht'iKf  it  fol- 
II    arc    best, 
uost  iiitrlli- 
Icast    clloit 
ion    of    tiiis 
^  free  com- 
:nrc  to  itsclt 
•  and  j^rcatcr 
will  receive 
iitively.     As 
ter,  but  the 
jconies  less, 
led   laborers 
lins  a   lar<;er 
il^es   paid  in 
arts,  special 
> ;  therefore  a 
le  to  time  as 
idily-increas- 
to  enable  all 
i;d   welfare, 
occupations 
iients  enable 
lo   undertake 
the  tanners' 
J,  with  much 
llf  the  wages 
lid   not  then 
Ithey  now  so 


THE    IROS  ASD   STEEL    INIU'STRIES. 

From    Swanks    SrAiisrics    <i|-    imk    Ikon    and    Stkki,    I'rodui  tion. 
Tkntm  Cknsis,  \'oi..  II.,  i'i>.  8S6-S(jo. 

lmf>0rUiHl  I'sfx  of  Iron  <init  SIffl. 

The  pe(ij)le  of  the  United  States  are  the  larj^est  per  capita  con- 
sumers of  iron  and  steel  in  the  world,  and  of  all  nations  they  are 
also  the  larj^est  a<;»j[rej^ate  consumers  of  these  products.  Great 
Itritain  makes  more  iron  than  we  do,  but  she  exports  about 
one-half  of  all  that  she  makes.  She  exports  more  than  one-half 
of  the  steel  that  siie  makes,  and  yet  makes  but  little  more  than  this 
country.  No  other  ICuropean  country  ecpials  (ireat  Ibitain  either 
in  the  per  capita  or  a<f<ire<^ate  consumption  of  iron  and  steel. 
This  country  is  not  n(»w  producing;  as  much  iron  and  steel  as  it 
consumes,  but  imports  lar<;e  (juantities  of  both  products,  (ireat 
Britain  beinj^  the  principal  source  of  our  tbreij^n  suj)ply.  Our 
exports  ol   iron  and  steel  are  only  nominal. 

A  simple  enumeration  ot  some  of  the  more  important  uses  to 
which  iron  and  steel  are  applied  by  our  people  will  show  how 
prominent  is  the  part  these  metals  play  in  the  development  of 
American  civilization  aiul  in  the  advancement  of  our  greatness 
and  power  as  a  nation. 

We  have  built  almost  as  many  miles  of  railroad  as  the  whole 
of  Europe,  and  consec|uently  have  used  in  their  construction 
almost  as  many  rails,  aiul  now  use  almost  as  manv  railroad  cars 
and  locomotives.  At  the  close  of  1881  this  countrv  had  100, cxx) 
miles  of  railroad,  Europe  had  about  io6,ocx3  miles,  and  all  the 
rest  of  the  world  had  about  45,000  miles.  The  United  States 
had  nineteen  miles  of  railroad  to  every  io.o<X)  of  pcjpulation, 
while  Europe  had  a  little  more  tlian  three  miles  to  the  same  pop- 
liation.  Railroads,  it  is  well  known,  amuially  consume  more 
than  one-half  of  tiie  world's  production  of  iron  and  steel,  —  rails, 
l>ri(lges,  cars,  and  locomotives  being  impossible  without  these 
metals.  The  street  railway  is  an  American  invention  w  liich  also 
consumes  large  (juantities  of  iron  and  steel,  and  we  are  far  in 
advance  of  every  other  nation  in  its  use.  We  were  also  the  Ihst 
nation  >  the  world  to  introduce  elevated  railways  especially  to 
facilitat  lavel  iis  large  cities.  In  the  construction  of  our  New 
York  ated   railways  beauty  of  design,   titness  of  parts,  and 


ll 


\. 


fii 


Hi 


i 

nam 


340 


SKLKCTIOXS. 


strciij^th  of  materials  have  hcoii  so  j^eilVctly  coiuhiiiicl  as  to  excite 
the  achuiratioii  ,;t'  all  who  hehoKl  them.  We  are  the  foremost  of 
all  nations  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  in  l)ri(l<;e-l)nii(lin^  for  rail- 
roads and  ordinary  hij^hways,  and  the  liifhtness  and  <;racefnlness 
of  oiM'  hiidLjes  are  nowhere  e(|i  ailed,  while  tlieir  strength  and 
adaptahilit)'  to  the  uses  to  which  they  are  re(|niied  are  nowhere 
snr[)assed.  In  the  use  of  iron  for  water-|)i|)es  and  ijas- pipes  we 
are  prohahly  in  advance  of  every  other  nation.  We  make  more 
iron  stoves  tor  heatin*^  halls  and  {hvellin«^s  and  for  the  purposes 
of  the  kitchen  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  in  the  use  of 
heaters  and  ranjjes  we  are  behind  no  other  nation.  Our  house- 
hold stoves,  both  for  heatin<^  and  cookin<^,  are  works  of  real  art 
as  well  as  t>f  utility.  They  are  ornaments  of  American  homes, 
instead  of  heint^  conveniences  simplv.  Our  heatini^  stoves  are 
especially  handsome,  bright,  cheert'ul,  healthful,  and  clean.  In 
all  respects  they  form  the  best  combination  of  desirable  (jualities 
yet  devised  for  the  heatinj^f  of  private  dwellings.  CooUin*^  and 
other  domestic  utensils  ol'  iron  have  always,  even  in  colonial 
da\s,  been  freel\-  used  in  American  houselioKls.  We  make 
liberal  use  of  both  cast  and  vvrouyht  iron  in  the  construction  of 
public  and  private  buildinj^s.  Our  use  of  iron  Ibr  these  purposes 
has  in  late  years  been  (|uite  marked,  and  m  no  resj)ect  more  so 
than  in  the  truly  artistic  effects  whicl  we  ^ive  to  this  metal.  We 
probaltly  excel  all  nations  in  tiie  use  of  iron  for  oiiiann-ntal  pur- 
j)oses  in  coimection  with  masomv,  brick-work,  and  wood-work. 
Fine  illustrations  of  the  artistic  combination  of  iron  with  other 
materials  may  be  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  new  .State  Depiut- 
ment  buildiii;^  at  Washiiv^ton  and  in  the  interior  of  the  new  pas- 
senger tle|)ot  of  the  IVimsylvania  railroad  at  Philadelphia.  We 
leail  th-  vvorld  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  wire  for  fencinj^  pur- 
poses, and  we  have  more  miles  of  te!e<»raph  wire  in  use  than  any 
other  comitrv.  Harbed-wire  fencinjj  is  an  American  inventio>  . 
\\'e  have  male  creditable  pro_t;ress  in  the  construction  of  iron 
ships,  and  we  would  iiave  made  much  tjreater  proirrcss  if  the 
same  encoura<,a'ment  that  has  been  j^iven  by  other  nations  to  their 
shippiii»(  interests  had  been  <^iven  to  ours.  We  use  immense 
(|uantities  of  plate-iron  in  the  stora<^c,  transportation,  and  rethiing 
of  petioleum.  in  the  pioduct-.m  of  which  natme  has  ^iven  us 
almost  a  monopoly.  The  oil-wells  ther.iseives  yearly  rec|uire 
thousands  of  tons  of  iron  pi|)es  tor  tubinjij.  We  make  liberal  use 
of  plate  and    sheet   iron    in    the  construction  of  the  chimneys  of 


U.    S.    IRON    AND   STEKI,    INDl'STkll'.S. 


341 


\  as  to  excite 

L-  tort-most  of 

(lin«;  for  rail- 

.41  acftnhicss 

slifn^^ii  and 
arc  nowhere 
jjras  iiipes  we 
_•   nuiUe  more 
•  the  purposes 
\\\  the  use  ot 
.     Our  house- 
rks  of  real  art 
lericau  homes, 
intr  stoves  are 
iiul   clean.     In 
iral)lc  (lualities 
CooUin:4  i'"*l 
en    \u    colonial 
Is,      \Vc    make 
construction  ot 
these  purposes 
t-spcct  more  so 
lis  metal.     We 
Linanuntal  pur- 
,h1  wood-work. 
Iron   with  other 
|v  State  Depart- 
,f  the  new  pas- 
adelphia.     We 
or  fencin>4  pur- 
lin u>e  than  any 
ican   inventio'  . 
Ilrnction  ot  iroir 
if  the 


)i-oj4ress 
nations 


to  their 


on, 


use    immense 

anil  retining 

;    has   j^iven  us 

yearly   rc(iuire 


rtia 


ke  lihcral  use 
\\c  cliimncys  ot 


stcamhoats  on  our  lakes  and  rivers,  and  in  the  construction  of 
factory,  rolling-mill,  and  hlast-fnrnace  chimneys,  and  the  stacks 
of  l)last-fin"naces.  American  planished  sheet-iron  has  almost 
entirely  superst-ded  Russia  sheet-iron  in  our  markets.  We  use- 
it  for  locomotive  jackets,  in  the  mamifacture  of  stoves  and  stove- 
pi  [)e,  and  for  many  other  purposes.  We  are  the  laijj^est  con- 
sumers of  tin  plates  in  the  world,  —  (ireat  Britain,  their  principal 
manufacturer,  sendinj^  us  annually  more  than  one-half  of  her 
whole  product.  l*ortal)le  and  statioiiarv  eni^ines  consume  lar^e 
quantities  of  iron  and  steel.  Our  beautiful  steam  tire-eu'^ines  are 
the  pr«)duct  of  American  taste  and  skill,  if  thev  are  not  strictly  ati 
American  invention,  and  we  amuially  make  lari,u'  nnmhers  of 
them  f>r  home  use  and  for  exportation.  Anchors  and  cliains, 
cotton-prt'ssL-s  and  cotton-ties,  suiijar-])ans  and  salt-pans,  and 
f^eneral  foundry  and  machine  work  annuali\  re(|uire  \av'j;v  (pian- 
tities  (>f  either  iron  f)r  steel.  We  make  our  own  cotton  ami 
woollen  manufacturing  machinerv,  and  nearlv  all  tiie  otiur  m.i- 
chinerv  that  we  use.  The  manufacture  of  the  prinlinj^-picssts 
of  the  country  consumes  immense  (|uanlities  of  iion  and  stetl. 
No  otiier  country  makes  such  free  use  of  the  pi  intinf^-prcss  as 
this  couutrv.  We  are  the  leadin<^  aj^ricultural  nation  of  tiie 
world,  and  hence  are  the  lar<;est  consumers  of  aj^ricultural  im- 
plements ;  hut  we  are  also  in  advance  of  every  other  nation  in 
the  use  f)f  aL^ricnltural  machinery.  Our  use  of  iron  and  sicel  in 
agriculture  takes  rank  next  to  their  use  in  tlie  construcf ion  and 
maintenance  of  railroads.  We  lead  all  nations  in  tlic  manutact- 
ure  of  cut-nails  and  spikes.  IIa\  ing  a  larger  and  more  rapidly 
increasing  population  than  any  other  country  that  is  noted  tor  its 
consiunption  of  iron,  we  are  conscrpientiv  the  largest  consumers 
of  nails  and  spikes  in  the  construction  of  dwellings  and  puhlic 
buildings,  stores,  warehouses,  olhces,  and  similar  structuns. 
Our  exteiuled  andvaiiod  mining  operations  consume  iron  and 
steel  in  large  (piantities.  So  do  our  manut'actures  of  scales  and 
balances,  letter-presses,  binglar-proof  anil  lire-proof  sales,  sew- 
ing-machi!ies,  and  wagons  and  caniages.  Sew  ing-machines  are 
an  American  invention.  Consideralile  (|uantities  ot  iion  <>i  iron 
and  steel  are  used  for  sewer  and  otiier  gratings.  stuHt-ciossings. 
iron  pavements,  lamp-pf)sts,  j)osts  tor  awnings,  all  sorts  of  small 
hardware,  horseshoes  and  horseslu)c  nails,  wire-ro|)e.  iron  iioops. 
iron  cots  and  bedsteads,  woven-wire  mattresses,  iron  screens,  iron 
railings,  and  lire-arms.     In  the  manufacture  of  machine  and  hand 


\i    '.  ■■ 


'I 


!^  , ,  ! 


I 

|i  ! 


m! 


li! 


342 


SKLECTIONS. 


tools  and  general  cutlery  we  are  excelled  by  no  other  nation,  and 
in  the  use  of  machine  tools  we  are  in  advance  of  every  other 
nation.  In  <i;eneral  cutlery  our  saws  and  axes  especially  enjov  a 
woild-wide  reputation.  Not  the  least  important  use  to  which 
iron  and  steel  are  put  in  this  country  is  in  the  extension  of  tiie 
iron  industry  itself,  —  every  blast-furnace,  rollinjjj-mill,  or  steel 
works  that  is  erected  first  devouring  large  quantities  of  these 
products  before  contributing  to  their  general  sujjply. 

In  the  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  this  country  is  rapidly  pro- 
gressing, especially  in  the  construction  and  etpiipment  of  its 
railroads.  During  the  past  few  years  fully  two-thirds  of  all  the 
rails  that  have  been  laiil  on  American  railroads  have  been  made 
of  Bessemer  steel,  and  at  present  a  still  larger  proportion  of  steel 
rails  is  required  by  our  railroad  companies.  On  several  Amer- 
ican railroads  tlie  b(;ilers  of  all  new  locomotives  are  now  re([uired 
to  be  made  of  steel,  and  the  tendency  is  toward  the  exclusive  use 
of  steel  for  locomotive  boilers,  and  its  general  use  for  stationary 
and  marine  boilers.  The  tires  of  American  locomotives  are  now 
made  exclusively  of  steel,  and  the  fire-boxes  of  our  locomotives 
are  generally  made  of  steel.  The  steel  used  in  the  construction 
of  American  locomotives  is  now  chiefly  produceil  by  the  open- 
hearth  process.  We  have  built  a  few  steel  bridges,  but  there  is 
no  tuarked  tendencv  to  substitute  steel  for  iron  in  bridw-buildiuir. 
Steel  is,  however,  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wire,  in- 
cluding wire-fencing,  and  lor  car  and  carriage  axles,  carriage 
tires,  lire-arms,  screws,  and  many  other  purposes.  Hut  little 
steel  has  yet  been  used  in  this  country  tor  nails  anil  horse- 
shoes. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  artistic  finish  of  some  of  our 
iron-work  ;  but  the  subject  seems  worthy  of  further  notice.  It  is 
not  only  in  stove-founding,  in  the  graceful  designs  of  bridges  and 
elevated  railways,  and  in  the  delicate  combination  of  iron  with 
other  materials  in  the  construction  and  ornamentation  of  build- 
ings that  American  iron-workers  have  dis|)layed  an  extjuisite  taste 
and  a  bolii  and  dexterous  touch.  The  fine  arts  themselves  are 
being  enriciied  by  the  achievements  of  our  ironworking  country- 
men. An  iron  foundry  at  Chelsea,  in  Massachusetts,  has  recently 
reproduced,  in  iron  castings,  various  works  of  art  with  all  the 
fidelity  and  delicacy  of  Italian  iron-founders.  The  most  delicate 
anlicpie  patterns  have  been  successfully  copied.  vShiekis  repre- 
senting mythological  groups  and  classic  events,  medallions  con- 


I 


U.    S.    IRON   AND    STEEL    INDUSTRIES. 


343 


nation,  and 
every  otluM' 
illy  enjoy  a 
_*  to  which 
ision  of  the 
ill,  or  steel 
es   of  these 

apidly  pro- 
nent    of    its 
s  of  all  the 
;  been  made 
tion  of  steel 
eral    Anier- 
low  re(|uire(l 
exclusive  use 
"or  stationary 
ives  are  now 
locomotives 
construction 
by  the  open- 
but  there  is 
l<rc-building. 
of  wire,  in- 
ks,  carriage 
.     But   little 
and  horse- 

Isome  of  our 
liotice.     It  is 
brid«;es  and 
I  of  iron  with 
lion  of  build- 
Ixcjuisite  taste 
Mil  selves  are 
king  country- 
has  recently 
Iwith  all  the 
liost  ilelicate 
[lields  repre- 
Llallions  con- 


taining copies  of  celebrated  portraits,  panels  containing  flowers 
and  animals,  an  imitation  of  a  Japanese  lacquer-tray  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  a  triumphal  procession  represented  on  a 
large  salver  comprise  some  of  the  work  of  the  Chelsea  toundrv. 
Some  of  the  castings  have  been  colored  to  represent  bronze,  and 
others  to  represent  steel,  while  others  again  preserve  the  tuitural 
color  of  the  iron.  The  bronzed  castings  resemble  beaten  work 
in  copjier.  Only  American  iron  is  used.  The  ornamental  uses 
to  which  art  castings  of  iron  may  be  put  are  manv,  and  as  they 
can  be  cheaply  produced  it  may  be  assumed  that  a  demand  will 
ere  long  be  created  for  them  that  will  be  in  keeping  with  the 
artistic  taste  which  has  been  so  generally  devehjped  in  our  country 
during  the  past  few  years. 

V\'e  conspicuously  fall  behind  many  other  nations  in  the  use  of 
iron  antl  steel  for  military  purposes.  We  maintain  only  a  small 
standing  army  and  a  small  navy,  and  hence  have  but  little  use  for 
iron  or  steel  for  the  supply  of  either  of  these  branches  of  the 
public  service.  We  are  also  behind  many  other  nations  in  tlie 
use  of  iron  and  steel  sleepers  for  railway  tracks.  We  yet  have 
an  abundance  of  timber  for  railway  cross-ties,  and  hence  do  not 
need  to  substitute  either  iron  or  steel  cross-ties.  Except  possibly 
as  an  experiment,  there  is  not  an  iron  or  steel  cross-tie  in  use  in 
this  country.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  we  still  import  manv 
blacksmith's  anvils,  their  manufacture  being  a  branch  of  the  iron 
business  to  which  we  have  not  yet  given  adecjuate  attenfion. 
Anvils  of  the  best  (juality  are,  however,  made  in  this  country. 
A  far  more  serious  hiatus  in  our  iron  industry  is  tbund  in  the 
almost  total  absence  of  the  manufacture  of  tin  plates,  the  basis  of 
which  is  sheet-iron,  as  is  well  known.  As  we  can  import  the 
crude  tin  as  easily  as  we  import  other  commodities,  our  failure 
thus  far  to  manufacture  tin  plates  must  be  ascribed  to  ilie  only 
true  cause,  —  our  inability  tf)  manufacture  sheet-iron  and  coat  it 
with  tin  as  cheaply  as  is  done  by  British  manufacturers.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  tin  ore  may  yet  he  d.iscoveretl  in  oin*  own 
country  in  sufHciently  large  cpiantities  to  supply  any  domestic 
demand  that  may  be  created  for  its  use. 

Conclusion.  —  In  reviewing  the  historical  pages  of  this  report 
the  most  striking  foct  that  presents  itself  for  consideration  is  the 
great  stride  made  by  the  worlti's  iron  and  steel  industries  in  the 
last  hundred  years.  In  1788  there  were  only  eighty-five  blast- 
furnaces in  Great  Britain,  most  of  which  were  small,  and  their 


Ill  !!   : 


III 

111 


S^C 


IMI 


l'< 


■  1  i£i 


344 


SELECTIONS. 


total  production  was  only  68,300  tons  of  pig-iron.  In  iSSo  Great 
IJritain  had  967  furnaces,  many  of  which  were  very  large,  and 
their  production  was  71749.233  tons.  A  hundred  years  ago  there 
were  no  railroads  in  the  world  for  the  transportation  of  freight 
and  passengers.  Iron  ships  were  unknown,  and  all  the  iron 
bridges  in  tlie  world  could  he  counted  on  tiie  fuigers  of  one  hand. 
Without  railroads  and  their  cars  anil  locomotives,  and  without 
iron  ships  and  iron  bridges,  the  world  needed  but  little  iron. 
Steel  was  still  less  a  necessity,  and  such  small  quantities  of  it  as 
were  made  were  mainly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tools  with 
cutting  edges. 

The  great  progress  made  bv  the  world's  iron  and  steel  indus- 
tries in  the  last  hundred  years  is  as  marked  in  the  improvement 
of  the  processes  of  manufactme  as  in  the  increased  demand  for 
iron  and  steel  products.  A  hundred  years  ago  all  bar-iron  was 
laboriously  shaped  under  the  trip-hammer  ;  none  of  it  was  rolled. 
Nor  was  iron  of  any  kind  retined  at  that  time  in  the  puddling 
furnace  ;  it  was  all  refined  in  forges,  and  much  of  it  was  made  in 
primitive  liloomary  forges  directly  from  the  ore.  Nearly  all  of 
the  blast-furnaces  of  a  hundred  years  ago  were  blown  with 
leather  or  wooden  bellows  by  water-power,  and  the  fuel  used  in 
them  was  chiefly  charcoal.  Steam-power,  ci»st-iron  blowing 
cylinders,  and  the  use  of  bituminous  coal  had  just  been  introduced. 
Less  than  sixty  years  ago  heated  air  had  not  been  used  in  tlie 
blowing  of  blast-furnaces,  and  fiftv  vears  ago  anthracite  coal  had 
not  been  used  in  them,  except  experimentally.  Thirty  years  ago 
the  Hessemer  process  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  had  not  bccii 
heard  of,  and  the  open-hearth  process  for  the  manufacture  of  steel 
had  not  been  made  a  practical  success.  Thirty  years  ago  the 
regenerative  gas  fmiiace  had  not  been  invented.  The  nineteenth 
century  has  been  the  most  prolific  of  all  the  centuries  in  inven- 
tio!)s  which  have  improved  the  methods  of  manufacturing  iron 
and  steel,  and  which  have  facilitated  their  production  in  large 
quantities. 

The  next  most  importan  *'act  that  is  presented  in  the  historical 
chapters  of  this  report  is  the  astonishing  progress  which  the  iron 
and  steel  industries  <>f  the  United  States  have  made  within  the 
last  twenty  years.  During  this  period  we  have  not  only  utilized 
all  contemporaneous  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel,  but  we  have  shown  a  special  aptitude,  or  genius,  for  the 
use  of  such   improvements  as  render  possible  the  production  of 


ii  t ! 


r.    S.    IRON    AM)    S'l'KKI,    IXDIS IKIKS. 


345 


iSSo  Great 
huge,  and 
IS  a<i;o  there 
1   of  freij,'ht 
all   the  iron 
)f  one  hand, 
and  without 
:   little  iron, 
ities  of  it  as 
»f  tools  with 

I  steel  indus- 
improvenient 
1  demand  for 
har-iron  was 
it  was  rolled, 
the  puddling 
was  made  in 
Nearly  all  of 
;  blown   with 
[e  fuel  used  in 
ron    blowing 
;n  introduced, 
used    in  the 
acite  coal  had 
irty  years  ago 
had  not  i.ceu 
acture  of  steel 
years  ago  the 
le  nineteenth 
lies  in   inven- 
facturing  iron 
ction  in  large 

the  historical 
vhich  the  iron 
de  within  the 
t  only  utilized 
urc  of  iron  and 
renins,  for  the 

production  of 


I 


iron  and  steel  in  large  (|iiantities.  Enterprising  and  courageous 
as  the  people  of  this  country  have  always  been  in  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel,  they  liave  shown  in  the  last  twenty  years 
that  they  have  in  all  respects  been  fullv  alive  to  the  iron  and 
steel  retjuirenients  of  our  surprising  national  development.  If 
we  had  uut  applied  inunense  blowing  engines  and  tiie  best  hot- 
blast  stoves  to  oiu'  ()last-furnaces  our  present  large  production  of  pig- 
iron  would  have  been  impossible.  If  we  hail  not  built  numerous 
large  roll ing-iu ills  we  could  not  have  hail  a  sullicient  supply  of 
plate-iron  for  locomotive  and  other  boilers,  the  hulls  of  iron 
ships,  oil-tanks,  nails  and  spikes,  aiul  other  important  uses  ;  nor 
of  sheet-iron  for  stoves  and  domestic  utensils  ;  nor  of  tee,  angle, 
and  channel  iron  for  bridge-building  and  general  construction 
purposes  ;  nor  of  iron  rails  for  our  railroads  ;  nor  of  bar-iron  and 
roil-iron  for  a  thousand  uses.  If  we  had  not  promptly  introduced 
the  Bessemer  process  the  railroads  of  the  country  could  not  have 
been  supplied  with  steel  rails,  anil  without  the  four  and  a  half 
million  tons  of  American  steel  rails  that  have  been  laid  ddwn  in 
the  past  twelve  vears  our  trunk  railroads  could  not  have  carried 
their  vast  tonnage  of  agricultural  and  other  products,  for  iron 
rails  could  not  have  endured  the  wear  of  this  tonnage.  If  we 
had  not  established  the  manufacture  of  crucible  steel  and  intro- 
duced the  open-hearth  process  there  would  have  l)een  a  scarcity 
of  steel  in  this  country  for  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, springs  for  railway  passenger  cars,  tires  for  locomo- 
tives, etc.  Foieign  countries  could  not  in  late  Nears  have  supplied 
our  extraordinary  wants  for  j)ig-iron,  rolled  iron,  iron  and  steel 
rails,  and  crucilile  and  open-hearth  steel,  for,  if  there  were  no 
other  reasons,  the  naturally  conservative  character  of  their  people 
woidd  have  pievented  them  from  realizing  the  magnitude  of  those 
wants.  If  our  iron  and  steel  industries  had  not  been  developed 
in  the  past  twenty  years  as  thev  have  been  it  is  clear  that  our 
railroad  system  could  not  have  been  so  wonderfully  extended  and 
strengthened,  and  without  this  extension  of  our  railroads  we 
could  not  have  produced  our  large  amuial  surplus  of  agricultural 
products  for  exportation,  nor  could  our  population  have  been  so 
largely  increased  by   immigration  as  it  has  l;een. 

We  cannot  fully  comprehend  the  marvellous  nature  of  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  iron  and  steel  industries 
of  this  country  in  recent  years,  unless  we  compare  the  early  his- 
tory of  those  industries  with  their  present  develoj;>ment. 


*■  '■ 


}  :s 


1 1 


346 


SELECTIONS. 


In  Alexander  Hamilton's  celebrated  "  Report  on  the  Subject 
of  Manufactures,"  presented  to  Congress  on  the  5tli  of  December, 
1 791,  just  ninety  years  ago,  it  was  stated  with  evident  satisfaction 
that  "  the  Lhiited  States  already  in  a  great  measure  supply  them- 
selves with  nails  and  spikes,"  so  undeveloped  and  primitive  was 
her  iron  industry  at  that  time.  In  the  preceding  year,  1790, 
"  Morse's  Geography"  claimed,  in  a  description  of  New  Jersey, 
that  "  in  the  wiiole  State  it  is  supposed  there  is  yearly  made 
about  1,200  tons  of  bar-iron,  1,300  ditto  of  pigs,  and  80  of  nail 
rods  ;  "  and  in  i8o3  it  was  boastingly  declared  in  a  memorial  to 
Congress  that  there  were  then  150  forges  in  New  Jersey,  "  which 
at  a  moderate  calculation  would  produce  twenty  tons  of  bar-iron 
each  annually,  auKUUiting  to  3,000  tons."  In  18S0  there  were 
several  rolling-mills  in  New  Jersey  and  several  hundred  in  the 
United  States  which  could  each  produce  much  more  bar-iron  in 
a  year  than  all  of  the  150  forges  of  New  Jersey  would  produce 
in  1803. 

Less  than  fifty  years  ago  the  American  blast-furnace  which 
would  make  four  tons  of  pig-iron  in  a  day,  or  twenty-eight  tons 
in  a  week,  was  doing  good  work.  We  had  virtually  made  no 
progress  in  our  blast-furnace  practice  since  colonial  days.  In 
1831  it  was  publicly  proclaimed  with  some  exultation  that  "one 
furnace  erected  in  Pennsylvania  in  1S30  will  in  1S31  make  1,100 
tons  of  pig-iron."  But,  as  George  Asmus  has  well  said,  "  a  time 
came  when  men  were  no  longer  satisfied  with  these  little  smelt- 
ing-pots.  into  which  a  gentle  stream  of  air  was  blown  through 
one  nozzle,  which  received  its  scanty  supply  from  a  leather  bag, 
squeezed  by  some  tired  water-wheel."  After  1840  our  blast- 
furnace practice  gradually  improved,  but  it  was  not  until  about 
1865  that  any  furnace  in  the  country  could  produce  150  tons  of 
pig-iron  in  a  week.  Ten  years  later,  in  1875,  we  had  several 
furnaces  which  could  each  make  700  tons  of  pig-iron  in  a  week  ; 
in  1880  we  had  several  which  could  each  make  1,000  tons  in  a 
week;  and  in  1881  we  had  one  furnace  which  made  234  tons  in 
a  day,  1,357  ***"''^  '"  ''  week,  and  5,598  tons  in  a  month. 

In  1810,  seventy  years  ago,  w'e  produced  only  917  tons  of  steel, 
none  of  which  was  crucible  steel.  In  1831,  fifty  years  ago,  we 
produced  only  about  3,000  tons  of  steel,  not  one  pound  of  which 
was  crucible  steel  of  the  best  quality.  So  imperfect  were  our  at- 
tainments as  steelmakers  in  1831,  that  we  considered  it  a  cause 
of  congratulation  that  "  American  competition  had  excluded  the 


u.  s. 


the  Subject 
Deceinl)er, 
satisfaction 
pply  tlieni- 
imitive  was 
year,  1790, 
ew  Jersey, 
early  made 
80  of  nail 
lemorial  to 
T,  "  which 
of  bar-iron 
:here  were 
red  in  the 
bar- iron  in 
d  produce 

ace  which 
-eififht  tons 
y  made  no 

days.  In 
that  "  one 
iiake  1,100 
1,  "a  time 
ittlc  smelt- 
n  through 
ather  bag, 
our  blast- 
intil  about 
50  tons  of 
id  several 
n  a  week  ; 

tons  in  a 
24  tons  in 


IKON-    AND   STEEL    INDlSTklKs. 


347 


British  common  blister  steel   altorrcthcr  •'     Tni^^^^         i     ,    • 
al  y  ceased  to  make  even  the  best  M  ^  :  sted     ^^:Z    ^"^  '''''" 
taken  Us  place,  and  in  that  vearwe  produ  "  ;  ^      .-t      T" 
of  stee     of  all    UUmU   r,,rr     .  .         ^''  ''"4/-3,3.^  ^'loss  tons 

0.1,3.3  RlOis  tons;    :uul   in    rSSo  we  nrorl .?  ,  «,. 

tons.     Our  production    in    ,SS,   wm    l^e        ,.      f'^^'''-''   -'■™'' 
tons.  '"'""t  4ofJO,ooo  gross 

iited  States  anion 


mg  countries  in  iSSo 


ofthe  world's  production  of 


is  correctly  indicated  in  the  i 


g  iron  and  steel  prodnc- 


we  have 

are  accessible.     This  table  nl 


allowing  tabic 
P'g-iron  and  steel  of  all  kinds,  which 


compiled  from  the  latest  and  most  reliabl 


places  the  world' 


iron  in  1880  at  i7,r.88,5c,6  gross  tons,  and  tl 


of  steel  in  the 


same 


of 


year  at  4,343,7 ly  ff'-oss  tons.    Tl 


P>g-non  produced  by  the  United  State 


percentage  of  steel  was  nearly  39 


e  statistics  that 

production  of  pi<r. 

'>e  world's  production 

•     The  percentage 

nearly  2J,  und  its 


s  was 


is  of  steel, 
s  ago,  we 
I  of  which 
:re  our  at- 
it  a  cause 
luded  the 


li 


if 


1 1 
1 1 


348 


SELECTIONS. 


01 

C 


"9 

e 
a 


a 

z 


in 

a 
o 
H 


%     "^     %     'I     §      'I     I     = 


:;   ;t 


P  '/  !/■; 


=    '-S    s 


25^ 
3 '.5 
05 


I-         1-         "5       »- 


? 
I 


^1 

0^ 


8 


£ 


^  3 

•/,  0 

c  o< 

o 


*       * 


o 


II  S 
■a 


2? 


0\         —  T 


§>     ?    ^ 


lll^^l'll^^^ 


•I 


bt 


c 
u 

M 

3 
>-l 
<M 

O 


a 
Q 

T3 
B 
« 


it 

_C 

3 


iJ        C 

2     1 


c 


n 

00 

e 
3 

X 

■a 

c 


3 


B 
V 

u 

t/3 


3 
o 
h 


U.    S.    IRON    AND    STKEI.    INDUSTRIKS. 


349 


1 


Altlu)ii<jh  this  t'ountrv  cannot  prodiico  iron  and  steel  as 
cliL'a[)ly  as  Euro|)fan  C(Mn»tiies  which  |)()ssess  the  advantaj^es  of 
clicap  lal)or  and  proximity  of  raw  materials,  it  is  not  excelled  hy 
any  other  country  in  the  skill  which  it  displays  or  tiie  mechanical 
and  scientific;  economies  which  it  practises  in  any  branch  of  their 
mamifactnre,  while  in  certain  leadin<^  branches  it  has  displayed 
superior  skill  and  shown  superior  aptitude  for  economical  im- 
provements. Our  hlast-furnace  practice  is  the  best  in  the  world, 
and  it  is  so  ciiietly  because  we  use  powerful  blowint^-enjjjines 
and  the  best  hot-blast  stoves,  possess  <^ood  fuel,  and  carefully 
select  our  ores.  The  excellent  (juality  of  our  pijf-iron  is  univer- 
sally conceded.  Our  Hessemer  steel  practice  is  also  the  best  in 
the  world.  We  produce  much  more  Hessemer  steel  and  roll 
more  Hessemer  steel  rails  in  a  j^iven  time  by  a  ijiven  aniount  of 
machinerv,  teciinically  termed  a  "  plant."  than  any  of  our  ICuro- 
pean  rivals.  No  controversy  concerninj^  the  relative  wearinjr 
qualities  of  European  and  American  steel  rails  now  exists,  and  no 
controversy  concerninj;  the  cpiality  of  American  Hessenier  steel 
ever  has  existed.  We  experience  no  dijliculty  in  the  mamifactme 
of  open-'  .  arth  steel  in  the  Siemens-Martin  furnace,  and  our  steel 
which  is  tluis  produced  is  rapidly  comin<;  into  f^eneral  use  siele 
by  side  with  crucible  steel.  In  tiie  maimfacture  of  crucible  steel 
our  acliievements  are  in  tiie  hi<^hest  decree  credital)le.  In  oidv 
one  resj)ect  can  it  be  said  that  in  its  manufacture  we  fall  behind 
any  other  country  ;  we  have  not  paid  that  attention  to  the  manu- 
facture of  fine  cutlery  steel  which  Great  Hritain  lias  done.  This 
is,  however,  owin;^  to  commercial  aiul  not  to  mechanical  reasons. 
American  crucible  steel  is  now  used,  without  prejudice,  in  the 
manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  tools,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  car- 
riaj^e-sprinj^s  and  many  other  articles  for  which  the  best  kinds  of 
steel  are  required.  In  the  (piantity  of  o[)en-hearth  and  crucible 
steel,  producetl  in  a  ^iven  time  l)y  a  y;iven  plant,  we  are  certaiidy 
abreast  of  all  rivals.  The  lar<;est  crucil)le  steel- works  in  the 
world  are  those  of  Park,  Hrother  «Sc  Co.,  at  Pittsburg,  I'eiui. 
Our  rollinjj-mill  practice  is  fully  etpial  to  the  best  in  Europe, 
except  in  the  rolling  of  heavy  armor  plates,  for  whicli  there  has 
been  but  little  demand,  and  in  the  pnuluction  of  wiiich  we  have, 
consequently,  had  but  little  experience.  The  cpiality  of  our 
rolled  iron,  including  bar-iron,  plate-iron,  sheet-iron,  iron  hoops, 
and  iron  rails,  is  uniformly  superior  to  that  of  foreign  rolled  iron. 
In  the  production  of  heavy  forgings  and  castings,  us  well  as  all 


;  i 


350 


SELECTIONS. 


lij;litcr  products  of  the   foundrv  .iiul   iiiachiiic-sliop,  this  country 


ill    the   skill    of  th 


has  shown  all  the  skill  ot  the  most  advanced  irnii-workin*; 
countries  in  luirope.  In  the  production  of  steel  castin<fs  we  have 
exliiliited  creditable  skill  and  enterprise,  and  we  are  in  advance  of 
all  countries  in  the  regular  use  of  the  IJessemer  converter  for  this 
purpose. 

All  of  our  leadinjif  iron  and  steel  works,  and,  indeed,  very  many 
small  works,  are  now  sup])lied  with  systematic  chemical  investi- 
jjCations  by  their  own  chemists,  who  are  often  men  of  eminence  in 
their  profession.  The  mana|n[ers  of  our  blast-furnaces,  roUing- 
mills,  and  steel-works  are  themselves  frecjuentlv  well-educated 
chemists,  metallurgists,  geologists,  or  mechanical  engineers,  and, 
sometimes,  all  of  these  combined.  Our  rapid  progress  in  increas- 
ing our  production  of  iron  and  steel  is  not  merely  the  result  of 
good  fortune  or  the  possession  of  unlimited  natural  resources,  but 
is  largely  ilue  to  the  possession  of  accurate  technical  knowledge 
by  our  iron-masters,  and  by  those  who  are  in  charge  of  their 
works,  combined  with  the  characteristic  American  dash  which  all 
the  world  has  learned  to  respect  and  admire.  The  "  rule  of 
thumb  "  no  longer  governs  the  operations  of  the  iron  and  steel 
works  of  this  country. 

A  feature  of  our  iron  and  steel  industries  which  has  attended 
their  marvellous  productiveness  in  late  years  is  the  aggregation 
of  a  number  of  large  producing  establishments  in  districts,  or 
"  centres,"  in  lieu  of  tlie  earlier  practice  of  erecting  small  furnaces 
and  forges  wherever  sutllcient  water-power,  iron-ore,  and  char- 
coal could  be  obtained.  This  tendency  to  concentration  is,  it  is 
true,  not  confined  to  our  iron  aiul  steel  industries,  but  it  is  to-day 
one  of  the  most  powerful  elements  that  influence  their  develop- 
ment. It  had  its  beginning  with  the  commencement  of  our  dis- 
tinctive rolling-mill  era,  about  1S30.  In  colonial  days  and  long 
after  the  Revolution  our  iron-making  and  steel-making  establish- 
ments belonged  to  the  classof  manufacturing  enterprises  described 
by  Zachariah  Allen,  in  his  "  Science  of  Mechanics,"  in  1829. 
"  The  manufacturing  operations  in  the  United  States  are  all 
carried  on  in  little  hamlets,  which  often  appear  to  spring  up  in 
the  bosom  of  some  forest,  gathered  around  the  waterfall  that 
serves  to  turn  the  mill-wheel.  These  villages  are  scattered  over 
a  vast  extent  of  country,  from  Indiana  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from 
Maine  to  North  Carolina,  instead  of  being  collected  together,  as 
they  are  in  England,  in  great  manufacturing  districts."     While 


this  country 
ron-workiu}^ 
i«:^.s  wc  lijive 
1  advance  of 
liter  lor  tliis 

,  very  many 
lical  iiivesti- 
Mui  lie  lice  in 
:es,  rollinj^- 
.'ii-educated 
inceis,  and, 
>  in  increas- 
lie  result  of 
sources,  hut 
Iviiowlodf^e 
^e  of  their 
h  which  all 
le  "  rule  of 
n  and  steel 

as  attended 
i<(Sretfation 
listricts,  or 
nil  furnaces 

and  char- 
on  is,  it  is 
it  is  to-day 
ir  develop- 

of  our  dis- 
5  and  long 
f  estahlish- 
s  described 
'  in  1S29. 
tes  are  all 
5ring  up  in 
erfall  that 
ttered  over 
,  and  from 
ogether,  as 
."     While 


<-tures  of  iron  and  steel  ai^  o      ,'    i;;  ''^'T'   "'''  ""  '"''"- 

P'"'l^'^ti'>M  of   iron  and  s^  .-I    1  '■''":"■'"'    **^'*   '^'^    ^^^cvc^^scd 

--•  «11  other  essen  i        o^^ui,  ;"  7    ""'''"^^  '''"'''  ^'^  -"l>Ie, 
our  grasp.     ^^,,  .„       to     "^"r  ''  ^'">;"'-''  ^"-vth  are  within 

-^-g  country  in   tij;:^^; '^^;:^;;;;     '---•'-..and    steel. 
even  G,c,,t  IJnf.i,,  i„  ,1.  ,  '^''"^  '''^''^'  ''^  ^''-'ll  surpass 

'-C   already  :::''.nfu;'''"  '^"^^'  •''■''''    ^'-'-  ^^ 
a'Hl  in  the  consu.npti,      o      .     ;,         ''?'''"^^-"  <"•  '  Wna-r  steel 
^^«3  will  prohahly  w^^^        j,'^  ''"''  ^^^^  P'-'-ts.      The  vear 

conditions   and    results    ....    ,7  '-  "^  '''-■""'>•     'J'''^"^^' 

P'i^ic,  ror,ofthen,selvcV   lev      "    ^r';-"-    ''  ""'•  "'"--' 
ti^e  United  States  a,   ,,;,''•  T'",      "  ""''"'''^'  P'-^'-"i"ei.ce  of 

-ni^c.  in  the  sec;;;;  's,;::;'^^.:;'^;''';;--  ^'•'^'^^'-— 

P'-ecesand  suhdueth  all  tl     '  s  "  tl  '''^'t  "  Hon   hrcaketh   in 

consumes   the    most    i  01  i.^^fi  ""''"'V^''"''  '^^ 

^Vl>cn    the   United   State     t  l^s  '"•*•'   '"''^'    ''"'   '''-^^    '•-"^• 

-on   to   take,    as    the   l^dt/''  '"r'"^  "''"'>  '^ ''^  ^ 

-s    consuming   coui  t' v     t    '  ^        "  "'^'  ''''^   Pru^uciu^  as  well 

''Westward  the  r4^;':,;ri:l^-;Pj^c^;;e^ 
new  interpretation,  for  the  iroi    inclu      v     ' ,  ;        '    '''^['^^^^-^  - 
"1  Asia,  and  then   passed   s.,<-.  .^'  '  ''*'*'  '^"  '>^'^'i"ning 

^'e<literranean,  up!    r'l^  ^ ^:;::'^,  ^j  '^^  'T'''  ^"'^"^  ^' ^ 
tl'en  have  made  the  circuit  J  thL  world.        ""^^'  "'  ''""^^^'  ^^'^ 


I 


M      ! 


352 


SELECTIONS. 


XV. 


LfCS    DETTES    PUniJC^l'ES. 

From  Nkymarck's  Les  Dkttk.s  PunLif|UKs  EiROPfcRNNEs,  pp.  86-102. 
I.- AUGMENTATION  DF.S  DETTES  PUBLl.'Zl'KS  DEI'UIS  iSjo. 

Dans  cc'tte  lonj^iic  t'iuiiii<''rati()ii  ilc  chitl'ifs.  cc  cjui  frappe  tout 
(I'abord  Tespiit,  c'cst,  rauj^nu  iitatioii  considiTaMi'  dc  la  clfttc  pu- 
blicpif  tics  Etats  I-luroiK'fns  (k-piiis  1S70.  Cede  dette  s'elevait  a  75 
milliards  eii  1S70  environ;  elle  atteint  115  milliards  en  1SS6. 
L'aii},ni)enlati(»n  n'est  pas  moiiuire  de  40  milliards.' 

Xoiis  avons  pris  a  dessein  cette  date  de  1S70  (jid  nous  rajipellc 
les  phis  "grands  malliems  tpie  notre  pays  ait  jamais  supportes,  les 
lourdes  charj^es  cpii  ont  etc  la  consetjuence  tic  la  j^uerre,  lu  far- 
deau  (jui  pese  sur  nous  tons.  I^a  j^uerre  de  1870  a  coute  ii  la 
France  phis  de  10  milliards:  sans  elle  nous  ne  serious  pas  j^rcves 
d'impots  ecrasauts  et  aucun  peuple  ne  supporterait  jilus  facile- 
ment  que  nous  le  poids  de  sa  dette  puhlicpie. 

Aucun  pays  n'a,  en  etVet,  suM  des  desastres  aussi  jrrands  (jue 
les  notres  ;  aucun  n'a  eu  une  indemnite  de  5  milliards  a  payer  a 
I'etran^er ;  aucun  n'a  du  leconstituer  sa  puissance  militaire,  son 
materiel  de  j^uerre  ,  aucun  n'a  eu  a  refaire,  pour  ainsi  dire,  la 
patrie  elle-meme  tout  entiere.     Et  cependant  ipie  voyons-nous .' 


^liiil^ 


'  D'lipris  If  jouriiiil  Ak\\\  SociiHe  de  sloti.Ulqiie  (avril   1867),  l:i  tU'ttu  publiqiio  (I'Kurnpe 

s'eli'v;iit,  rii  iS<)5-i866,  aiix  cliilVres  siiiviinls  :  — 

Di'priisc^  Idtaks  dcs  luicljjcts         ...... 

C'jpil;ilisMti'>ii  do  ilt'ttt's  ....... 

InturOt  il  aiiiortissi'UK'iit 


in  tnilli:ird.s  .ifckS  millions. 
()()         •'         on         " 
i  "  4,iS  " 


I.ii  population  i\v  I'Kiirope  itait  evalut'  i\  21*1,7.5^,379  habitants  j  la  di-ttc  par  habitant  ruprt-. 
scuta  it  .'Jo  tr.  V'- 

M.  I'aul  lloitoau,  dans  son  artiili-  sur  li-  bud>;t't  ni-noral  di-  I'lilat,  iiisOrd  dans  Ic  Diction- 
nairu  dcs  titiaiiccs  dc  M.  Leon  Say.  a  reuni  sous  Ic  litre  dc  :  "  Hudu:i'ls  liuropccus  "  la  plu- 
part  dcs  budjri-ts  du  continent,  ct  pour  en  facilltcr  I'litude,  il  a  placi5  en  rei;ard  du  inontant 
des  dcpenses  pr^vues  pour  Texcrcice  1SS5,  Ic  niontant  des  dcttes  consolidees  et  autres  cpu 
t;ri'vent  ractifdes  dill'crents  ^itats  ainsi  que  Ic  niontant  des  dcpenses  inilitaires  et  cellcs  du 
service  tie  la  Detti-  et  de  I'amortissenu'Mt.      l\  obtieul  les  chillres  Miivants  :  — 

rrevisions  lotales  lies  dci>euse>  hud;;et:iires  aiiiuullc's        .         .       iS  milliards  84S  millions  . 
Capitalisation  des  detles  tonsididees,  des  dettcs  amortissablcs 

anuiiitiis  iliverses,  etc loS  "  4,}i  " 

Dcpenses  du  service  des  dettcs  ct  dc  Pamortissenicnt        .        .        4  "  S')4         " 

Depenses  militaires,  guerre  et  marine |  "  431)         " 

On  pourra  comparer  ces  chiffrcs  ,'i  ccu.x  que  nous  donnoiis  plus  loin. 


lr:s    DKTTES    PUni.lQUES. 


rEs,  pp.  86-I02. 
'.PUIS  1S70. 


nous  rappclle 
iiiliportc's,  les 
4iicire,  lu  far- 
)  a  contc  a  la 
n.s  pas  <(rev(5s 
it  plus  facile- 

i  grands  (jue 
ids  a  payer  a 
inilitaiic,  son 
ainsi  dire,  la 
vovons-nous  ? 

publiqiR'  (I'Kiirope 


|i;ir  liiiliilant  repre- 

rd  dans  Ic  Diction- 
Cunipdc'iis  "  hi  plu- 
CL'ard  ilu  iiumtant 
(li'i'>  ct  aiitrfs  (jui 
itairus  L't  cellcs  du 

irds    84S  millinns. 


353 

^:^::-:":;::t:;;:^:;;;;:':;^/-»-^";;":;'::-r:,::: 


Al(iMKNTATIO\    dL'    (A  pit  a  r      v. 

'3  inillianls. 


France 


Riissie  '  . 

Prusse     . 

Italie       . 

Ilony^rie 
Autrichc 

Kspaj^'iie 

J^c'l;,'i(jue 

Rounianic 

AlkMna<,nic 

Saxe 

(irece 

Scrhie    . 

Wurteniherg 

Suede 

Ha 


1 1 

kk 

3 

t( 

3 

\\ 

1 

t  1 

I 

44 

I 

44 

I 

44 

2'7  millions. 

'3-! 
249 

770 

300 

«9 


44 
44 
44 

44 

44 
44 
44 
44 
44 

44 

44 

44 

44 


'^mm 


)  i 


354 


SELECTIONS. 


(Icpc'iisc  inoiiis  (le  lo  milliards  chacun  pendant  la  nvjnie  pcriodc. 
rAutiiclie  ct  I'ltalic  prcs<iiie  le  nii'inc  chitlVc.  V'oila  done  ciiuj 
grands  pays  cjiii,  on  vuc  d'une  jjncrrc  probable,  dcpensciit  tons 
les  atis,  de  500  a  900  millions,  depuis  seize  ans.  (^ue  couterait 
done  la  jjjiKTie  elle-meme? 

Lcs  Etats  eiMopeens  paient  annuellement  pour  leurs  depenses 
de  la  {guerre  et  de  la  marine  a  pen  pres  les  luemes  sommes  t|ue 
pour  rinteret  et  ramortissemeiit  de  leurs  detles.  D'apres  les 
derniers  budgets,  ainsi  (|ue  le  prouvent  les  ehilVres  cpie  nous 
publi((ns  plus  loin,  la  <;uerre  et  la  rrarine  content  a  I'lCuiope 
4  milliards  ^iS  millions,  alors  (|ue  I'irteret  et  I'amortissement  des 
dettes  publitpus  n'elament  5  milliards  343  millions.  En  voici  le 
releve  : 

U.  —  l)£l'KNSi:.S  DE  LA  GmtRE,  DE  LA  MAIilXE,  CAPITAL  A'OAf/XAL 
KT  ISTtliETS  DES  DE  TTKH. 

illlll. 

(Jllllll'  ft 

niarinc. 


Ktats. 


KxiTciccs 

tiiumciiTs. 


Iiilrrt'ls 
Capital  Miiiiiiiial        ft  .iinort. 
ik'  la  ili'tlc.  aim. 


I'nisse         UT  avril   iSS<>. 

AlU'iiia^Mi' ,(1  (Itfc.  iSS^i. 

Avitiirhf 31  (l<5c.  iSS.j. 

Iloiinrif "      "       " 

\\iirU-iiiIi<r;4 .^i  lUe.  iSSs. 

Saxc ' 

llainloiiir^ },\  Aic.  iSSj. 

Haviire irr  aviil   iSS6. 

Hade ,u  (111'.  1SS5. 

/'Uats  alli'iiiaiuls "      "       " 

Italic    

Silt:<lo "       "       " 

\i>r\vi-i;c V'j"'"  '^"^S- 

I>aiu'iiiaii.'k .<!  iMv.  1SS5, 

Pays. Has ' 

IU-i^Mc|UO 

I'.sp.iniif Ill  jiiillft  iSSfi, 

I'.irtuual 

Anultlirn' .51  mars  iSSi;. 

Suisse itT  Janvier  1SS6. 

.Serltie 1.5  jiiiii  iSSfi. 

Uouinanic ler  avril  1S87. 

(iiecc ler  Janvier  1SS6. 

'I'un|iiie iSSo-iSSi. 

nul(;aiie ler  Janvier  18S5. 

I-'iiilaiule 31  live.  1SS5. 

Hiisvie 

1' ranee 31  Aic.  iS.%. 

Totaux  .    ,   . 


MilUurds-Million.s.    .Millions. 
4.S14 

9388 


3-'78 

in 

800 
178 

l.7yo 

5J 
163 

11.131 
.VI.S 

•s« 

*74 
3.a6o 
1. 771 
6.043 

17.S29 

3» 
344 

7»9 
.M8 


"S 

iS.niS 

3 1  .()!  M 

1 17.1 1 J 


2J(I 

JO.  I 

3S.,.., 

JO'.S 

S.7 
61.1 

i.i 
1 1 

S.W 
10., 

i> 

I  J., 

'V-.S 

■*••!; 

Ho..! 

7.57'.'; 

i.S 

'.»'7 

.VI 
.S5- 1 
i.\ 

i.n3S 
1  -VV) 


.Millions. 


.VI '-S 

.vvs 

4.";-" 
.•<«). 3 

7lo.j 
17.1 

!(>..' 

/S5 

idli 
(I.I 

gSj., 

4..SiS.i 


'  D'aprts  line  note  ile  I'lionoralile  M.  Ilanm'osik,  <le  la  Smif^lL*  ile  statisliqiie  de  l.ondres, 
de  tin  mars  iSS.j  V  tin  mars  iss^,  IWii^jU  terre  paif  coiiiinc  inltiiel  iJ.ixjo.mx)  /J  ft  7,(K}(  .uxj  £ 
eoinme  amortissemeiit,  s>>it  .111  total  H).^oi.),iXAt  £,. 


i.Fs  nrriKs  i-riu.KirKs. 


.vvS 


L»  periods" • 
a«)MC  c'uui 
iiscnt  tovis 
;  CDuterait 

■s  (Icpcnses 
)ninK'S  qii^' 
3'apvc's    U's 
s  que  nous 
u  rEiivopo 
sscnK'Ul  (K's 

-.1/.  NOMIXM^ 


rets 
lort. 

inns. 

S.7 

Ol.I 

i.i 

1 1 

.>- 


1  12.( 

'v-.S 
Iso.S 

i.S 

'.V7 

SS 
S.v' 

5'> 

'.^^ 


Deiii'iisi-i- 

'.inn. 

(Jurin-  ft 

iir.iriiH-. 

MilU'ins. 


i4' 


1^  < 

i,\ 
(»).=> 

71"' 
17-' 

i8.5 

iOl) 

r<.i 
850.1; 


listi.,vu-  df  I."'«l<-'-''- 
1.0.x,  /;  ct  T-'-o  •u^'  ^ 


Dims  cjiiellcs  proporlions  i-iionrn's  Ics  drttcs  piihlicjncs  dc  tuuti- 
riCmope  Mc  poiirraiciit-t'llcs  pas  etrc  icdiiitcs  si  les  (U-pi-nsi-s  k\v  la 
jj;iieru'  n'alisorhaicnt  pas  tons  k-s  aiis  pins  de  .S5  '/f  dc  ccs  im'-iiK's 
dcttcs.'  Tontc's  les  puissances  europeennes  ont  des  i-iiiltai  i;is 
tiiiancicrs;  toutes  on  prescpie  toutes  au}.(inentent  ou  out  hesnin 
d'au^nu'iiter  leurs  iuipots.  'j'outes,  sans  exceptiDU,  font  dcs 
arnieuients  considtral>l<'s.  Cette  situation  pre'iiito  les  plus 
{.jraves  dangers  et  plus  cpie  jamais  ci'pendant.  le  maintieii  de  la 
paix  est  neces.saire  a  ri'!uropc  pour  consolider  son  credit,  ame- 
lioier  I'etal  de  si  s  finances,  doimer  de  I'essor  et  de  la  coidi.mce  .lu 
commerce  et  a  ^iudu.^t^ie. 

///.   —   J.KS    C(K\'VEIiSI()N'<     DF      Hf  WTKS    X     L'KTHA  \(;  El{     HI     IS 

I  HA.WH. 

VA  cepe!idant,  mali^ie  les  cliaii^es  de  toute  nature  cpii  piseiit 
sur  les  ICtats,  les  rentes  de  ces  mcmes  pays  se  sont  ne<^()ciii'K 
peiulant  I'ajmee  iS.S()  pre.^que  toutes  ;iu\  plus  liauts  cours  cpi'dlis 
aient  cotes  depuis  iSyo.  Ncui  seulement,  •;;race  a  I'ahondauce  iles 
capitaux  et  a  Pahaissement  dii  taux  de  I'iuteret,  les  t'onds  publics 
out  liausse,  mais  il  a  ete  realise,  en  matii'^re  de  tinauces,  des  pr«)- 
{^res  considrral)les. 

Les  Mtat:>,  lion  plus  (pie  les  villi-s  et  les  soiit'-tes  iudustrii-lles  on 
financieres,  n'liesitent  p. is  a  efl'ectuer,  sur  une  ties  lar^u"  I'clielle, 
des  operations  (pi'on  eut  a  peine  ost-  cmici'voir  il  v  a  nioiii  •  di- 
trente  aiis, 

Aui(nucriuii  des  ICtats.  dont  la  puissance  linaiuierv  i  toiijoms 
ete  relativemeiit  restreinte,  pi-uvent  coiitiacter  des  emprunt"^  (pii 
depassent  de  heaiicoup  ceux  cpie  nai^uere  encore  des  nations 
riches  u'eussent  tentes  (pi'avec  appielieiision. 

Pontes  les  comliinaisons  auxtpielles  peuvenl  preter  les  linances 
d'l'Uat  (|ui  etiiient  si  Iou<»tenips  restees  dans  le  donnine  de  la 
tlieorie,  sont  pleiiiement  enliees  dans  Li  pra(i(|jJt'  et  m"  lealisent 
coiiraniuient.  Jiieii  des  prejuj^es  economitjues  et  linanciers  se 
sont  di'-sipes  ;  bien  des  pi  incipes,  encore  conleste*  naj^uen-.  unt 
triomplie  et  se  sont   impost-s. 

Le  credit  a  rcquis  une  i'orce  d'expansi(Mi  iiiouj'e;  Ji-s  t'onds 
publics,  les  vaJeuvs  mobilieres  se  sunt  de  ])Jus  en  plus  ivp;indiu's. 
vul>^ai  isees.  <U'inocratisees  en  (jiu-Njue  soile.  Ixnar  <.jriiiwle  lucilile 
lie  circulation,  Jeur  mobi,lite,  Jeui  ilillusJ**!!,  Jeur  accessiliiiili^  m 
toutes  les  loilinii's,  pHites  on  ^rande*,  Jeur  (»nit  afcsure  fine  t';iviui. 
que  J'lH)  peut  trouver  excessive,  mais  (|(ii   est,  '»  di\ers  poijiis  dr 


'i 


•I: 


356 


SKI.ECTIONS. 


vnf,  ties  jiistificc.  Cet  cssor  dc  la  fortune  iiiol)ilicrc  a  dc'torniinc 
iiiu'  \('Tilal)K'  ri'voliition  dans  les  conditions  linai;cicrcs  de  I'cxis- 
tencc  dcs  pi'iipk-s. 

KnipriMits.  unilications  <le  dettes,  conversions,  sont  dcs  opera- 
tions deveiuies  fainilieres  tnenie  aiix  moindres  I'^tats.  Kt,  chose 
asse/.  etran^e,  c'est  la  France  cpii,  apres  avoir  ete,  avec  I'Anj^le- 
tcrre,  I'initiatrice  des  frrntuies  refonnes  fniancieres,  a  etc  depuis 
(jiiel(|ues  ainiees,  parnii  les  nations,  la  plus  tiniide  a  realiser  les 
coml>iiiaisons  heureuses,  letfiliines.  prolitahles,  cpie  la  puissance 
ct  la  solidite  de  son  credit  lui  rendent  si  faciles. 

Rien,  en  elVet,  de  plus  curieux  a  observer,  aut(nir  de  nous,  (jue 
les  nonihreuses  operations  de  conversion  d«''ja  accoinplies  avec 
succes  ou  en  voie  de  preparation.  Si  on  pent  rejiroclier  a  certains 
Etats  une  propension  tri>p  <^rande  a  einprunter.  il  faut  hien  recon- 
naitre  (|u'ils  se  preoccupent  aussi.  pour  la  pluparl,  de  n'enipruiiter 
(ju'.iu  pins  has  prix  possihle.  Des  (jue  leur  credit  s'elend  et  s'aine- 
liore.  ils  sY'llorcenl  de  reniplacer  les  ancieiuies  deltes  coi'iteuses, 
onereuses,  par  des  dettes  plus  le^eres,  contractees  a  un  taux 
nioins  eleve.  Ce  sont  inaintenant  des  puissances  tinancieres  de 
second  et  de  troisienie  ordre  (jui  nos  donnent  I'exeniple.  Dans 
cet  or. he  (ri(iees  et  de  rait>,  il  n'est  ceilaiiieinent  pas  inutile  d'ex- 
HMiiner  coinujent  se  sont  elVectuees  les  conversions  recentes  et 
(rindi()uer  les  divers  procedes.  jusqu'ici  eniploves. 

De|)uis  iSyo,  deux  t'onds  d'l^lats  tVan(;ais  out  ete  I'ohjet  d'une 
con\ersi<n:  reinpmnt  Moi<j^an  ct  la  rente  y/,- .  On  se  ra'-,<elle 
conunint  clles  s'etrectuerent :  on  ofl'rit  aux  porteurs  d'ohli<;ations 
Morj^an  <)'/  ,  le  menie  revenu  en  rente  3'/  ,  lUoyeiUKUit  une  soulte 
de  I  j.|  fr.  par  oi)li<^ation.  Les  porteurs  ile  rentes  ;;''/  cureiit  a 
ojjter  entre  le  retnhoursement  a  100  fr.  de  leurs  rentes  et  I'echanj^e 
contrc  un  nouveau  titre  de  rente  4J%  non-convertible  avant  uii 
delai  de  10  ans  qui  expire  en  iSc^^. 

La  Hr!}j^i(pu' a  opere  trois  conversions:  son  4.',  est  devenn  >ai 
4'/^.  puis  duT,'/o.  I'our  la  premiere  operation,  elle  cut  iunne- 
diat»njent  recours  a  un  s\  lulicat  de  baiupiiers,  (]ui  se  char<j^eait  du 
placement  de  la  lente  nouvelle,  tandis  cpie  I'lCtat  operait  le  retrait 
de  la  rente  convertie.  Pour  la  seconde  conveision,  le  }jfou\erne- 
nient  bclj^e  voulet  operer  seul  et  eniettie  directement  sa  route 
nouvelle;  il  n'obtint  pas  tout  le  succes  desire  et  dul,  apres  ties 
cssais  peu  lavorables,  accepter  le  concours  (jui  lui  avail  etc  doiuie 
jirecedemment. 

Tout  receiument,  ainsi  ([u'ou  I'a  vu  ilans  le  coui^  de  cett<;  etuilc. 


i.r.s  DKiTMs  i'riu,i()ir.s. 


."I  .t  / 


k'teriniiic 
(Ic  I'cxis- 

Ics  o|K'ra- 
Et,  chose 
■c  rAn<ile- 
i:-tc  cU-piiis 
IV  a  User  K'S 
puissance 

.•  nous,  que 
iiplics  avec 
r  a  certains 
l>ien  recon- 
I'euiprunter 
1(1  el  s'auK- 
s  couteuses, 
i   ii   un  laux 
uancii'ies  ile 
nple.      Dans 
iiuilile  d'ex- 
recentes  et 

r()\))el  d'une 


\\  se  ra- 


.»e 


lU 


Polili'^alions 

[\l  une  soiille 

'/    eureut  a 

ct  I'echanj^e 

Ac  avant   un 


tt  tlevenu  .ai 
eut    iinme- 


chan^eai 
Irait  le  re 


t  (In 
trait 


le  <jjovi\erne- 
M\l   sa   rente 


111,  apres 


des 


it  rte  (lonne 


la  IJeli^icpie  a  realise  inie  trosieine  conversion  en  convertissant  ses 
rentes  4'/     contre  du   3-1'/ .     Cette   operation,   ellectiiee   directe- 


nient  par  le    1  resor,  olitint  un  pleni  succes. 

La  Suede  a,  elle  ausM,  transfornie  successivenient  son  .\\  en  .j  ^/r 
et  en  T^},  '/(,  en  recourant  a  rinterniediaire  des  ^ramies  inaisons  de 
haiKjue.  Celles-ci  emettaient  sur  les  inarches  etraii;;ers  la  noiivelle 
rente  suedoise,  tandis  (|ue  I'Etat  restail  charj;e  du  retrait  des 
anciens  titres. 

On  con^oit  ipie  linterveMtion  des  svn<licats  et  des  j^roupes  fnian- 
ciers  soil,  pour  ainsi   dire,    runi(|ue    nioxeu   de^  petits    lj;Us  (|ui 


n  out  pas  de   niarche    national 


II 


est  certani  (lue 


la  l< 


oUMiaiiie 


par  exeniple,  n'a  pu  ellectuer  la  conversion  de  sa  dette  6  '/  (|ue 
<;race  an  concours  de  puissantes  inaisoiis  an\<pielle>  elle  s'est 
adressee.  Ce  sont  ces  dernieres  cjui  plai^aient  la  nou\elIe  rente 
tandis  cpie  I'lltat  renihour^ ait  I'ancienne. 

L'l^spaj^ne.  lors  de  la  recente  coinerNion  de  ses  ernprunts  i\r 
rile  de  L'uha,  s'est  adressee  a  un  j^roupe  de  hancpners  :  elle  >"en- 
tendait  avec  eux  pour  le  prix  de  la  nou\elle  rente  a  creer,  el  a\ec 


U 


e  produit  ilu  nouvel   eniprinit,  renii)oiusait  des   dettes  ancieunes 
contractees  a  plus  ^ros  interet. 

Les  grands  Ltats  qui  out,  |)res(]ue  tons,  d'iuipuitaiits  marches 
financiers  ne  se  cioient  cependanl  pas  toujours  asse/,  sin>  de  leurs 
propres  forces   pour  dedai^ner    le  concojus  (Us  iiampies   el    des 

Sans  ces  hautes  inlhiences.  aucune  opera- 


institutions  de  ciedit. 


lion   de    credit   iniportanle   ne    pourrait,   sans  doute,   accpii'-rir   un 
caractere  international  et  ohtenir  la  ])articipati(>n  des  marches  e\- 


terieurs. 


Aiissi  toiites  les  conversions  ()i)er(.''es  dans  de  lar<res  ok 


portions  ne  I'onl-elles  eti'  (pi'asec  la  participation  des  s\  ndicats. 


La   llonj^rii.-  a  ttlectiie    la  con\ersi(in   de  sa   rei\te  ()  '/,   en  rente 


V/r 


en  or  et  elle  prepare,  en  ce   ujoment  lueme,  une  opeialioii  du 


nienie  ^enre   sur  d'auties  dettes.      Ici.  les  l)an(piiers,  j^roiipes  en 
vue  de  cette  traiislormalion,  se  sont  char^^c's  a  la  fois  ef    du  |)la(.e- 


ment  de  la   rente  !iouvelle  et  du  retrait  de  la  reiUt-   a 


iiiienne 


I. 


leuihourscment  au  pair  u'est  dexeuu  ohiioatoire  poui  le^  puiteurs 
de  6  '/  hontfrois  (ju'a  Tissue  de  I'operation  <pii  s'est  ell'ectuee  par 
tractions  echelonnees.  La  loi,  cpii  a  fixe  les  conditions  dans  les- 
tpielles  cette  conversion  tVit  autorisee.  etait  concue  presipie  dans 
les  uR-nies  teruies  que  le  projet  cjue  nous  lonnulions  iious-uKine 
des  le  inois  d'aout  iStO'cmi  vue  de   lu  conversion  eventuelle  ilu 


'/   f 


rancais. 


ce 


Ite  elude. 


\'t)ir  iiotri'  I'liuli'  ■  /-((  CoHit-rsK/H  de  la  litnte  ;;<.     I'ari.s,  Dciitu,  edit.,  iSto. 


w 


Iri 


M\  \ 


35« 


SELECTIONS. 


En  Allcin;i^iie,  les  C()iiveisi(»iis  de  foiuls  pnissiciis,  havarois  ot 
wintcnihcrjj^cois  se  S(;iit  opcrccs  par  remission  d'cniprunts  duiit  le 
produit  a  scrvi  an  rcnihonrscnient  dcs  ancicnncs  rentes. 

A  retrant»er,  il  nous  reste  a  citer,  au-dessns  de  tons,  Texcmple 
dcs  litats-l'nis  cpii  out  accompli  avec  une  liabilete  et  un  esprit  de 
suite  merveilienx  des  conversions  successives  dans  les  conditions 
les  plus  heureuses  et  les  plus  favorables,  sans  (|ue  les  partituliers 
aient  jamais  eu  a  sonllVir  des  consetjuences  de  ces  transformations 
repetees.  (irace  a  la  prevoyance  avec  laquelle  I'Americpie  du 
Nord  avait  cr^'e  ses  rentes  par  series,  des  conversions  partielles 
out  pu  se  succeder  rapidemeiit ;  et  Ton  a  vu  en  peu  d'annees  du 
6  %  se  transf(irn)er  en  5  ''^ ,  puis  en  4  '/t^  puis  en  3  %.  Ces 
operations  nombreusis.  les  Htats-Unis  les  out  etleLtuees  directe- 
ment  sur  leuis  proprcs  marches  et  a  I'exterieur  avec  le  concours 
de  jjraiules  nuiisons  de  bancpie. 

Mais,  en  deiiors  iles  exemples  cpie  nous  out  ilonnes  les  autres 
nations,  nous  poiurions  rappelci  ceux  ipie,  sous  ties  formes 
diverses,  nous  out  otVerts  nos  departements  iVain^'ais  et  nos  pro- 
pres  villes.  La,  encore,  nous  trouvons  des  ellbrls  tres  louahles 
et  des  comWinaisons  tres  varices.  Nous  avons  vu  des  villes  re- 
courir  an  lemhoursement  an  pair  d'anciennes  dettes  et  a  iles 
empruuts  plus  a\antai^eux  pour  allej^er  leurs  char<fes,  les  unes 
s'adressant  au  i)ul)lic,  les  autres  s'assurant  I'ajjpui  de  syiulicats, 
d'autres  eniin  traitant,  sans  autre  intermediaire,  avec  le  Creilit 
Foncier  de  France  (|ui  leui  <i[aranti.>sait  a  un  taux  maximum  les 
capitaux  dont  elle  avaient  hesoin  pour  rcml)ourser  la  dette  ant(5- 
rieure  conlractee  a  un  taux  plus  <Jleve. 

Nous  avons  vu  eutin,  plus  pres  de  nous  encore,  le  Credit  Foncier 
de  France  protiter,  jxmr  son  propre  compte,  et  au  j^raiul  profit  de 
sa  vaste  clientele  d'emprunteurs,  de  rabaissement  du  prix  de 
I'art^ent,  et  convertii  dcs  oi.li<^ations  entrajnant  une  aimuite 
iHevee  |)ar  des  titres  n'exijj[eant  (ju'une  annuite  notahlenient  infe- 
rieiue.  On  sait  avec  (pieUe  simplicilc-  s'esl  ellectuee  cette  opera- 
tion :  les  porteurs  des  oMii^ations  a  convertir  avaient  un  droit  de 
preference  dans  ia  sousH:viptioii  des  obl'j^ation*  noiivelles ;  ils 
restaient  lihres  de  n'en  pas  user,  mais  tfiient  dumcnt  avcrtis  du 
ren»lM)ursenRMit  procliain  et  oMi^atoire  des  titres  anciens. 

Ainsi  les  nations  (jui  nous  entonrent  et,  clie/.  nous-ijieincs,  les 
provinces,  les  villes,  les  institutions  de  creilit,  out  pr  •Hjiie  avec 
empressement  et  avec  succes.  sous  les  formes  les  plus  diverse*, 
ties  conversions  (jui,  t»)Utes,  out  tJte  profit  ihles.      Fu  ce   niouient 


i.Ks  DF/rrKs  rini.K.n-F.s. 


35*) 


t»rois  ct 
dont  Ic 

jxcniplc 
•sprit  <le 
iiulitions 
ticiilitMS 
niiations 
litiuc  (lu 
paiticlles 
nnees  tin 
% .     Ces 
s  (liiecte- 
coiKours 

les  antics 
cs  tbrmes 
iios  pto- 
s  l()ua\)les 
villcs  re- 
i  ct  a  lies 
les  lilies 
svnilicats, 
c  Crcilit 
imiiu  Ics 
ctte  antc^- 

t  Foncicr 
profit  lie 
prix   tie 
c    aiinuite 
iHMit  intii- 
ttc  oi)cra- 
1   droit  lie 
dies  ;    ils 
uveitis  iiii 

s. 

iiMJCs,  les 

iijiic  avec 

(liver**  ». 

nii>iiu'itt 


nicme,  dc  giaiidcs  opfiat.ons  ilc  cc  genre  sont  a  prevoir 


II 


1 1  cs- 


pas  doiiteiix,  en  ell'et,  (pie  rAnglctcne  ne  se  prc|)arc  a  line  iioiit 
velle  Conversion  de  ses  Consoliiles  doiif  les  conrs  sont  an-dessiis  dii 
])air;  di-s  ipic  Toccasion  sera  propice,  la  tiansfoiinatioti  sera  laite. 
En  Italic,  la  conversion  de  la  rente  5%  est  a  roiilre  dii  jonr,  et  il 
ne  s'ecoiilera  pas  heaiKonp  de  temps  avant  (ju'elle  ne  soit  realisee. 
Deja    le   goiiveiiienient  a  })repare  iin   projet  pour  coiivertir  plu- 


sieurs  dellcs  rachetables  e 


t  oH 


re  ilu  44  a  la  place  tlii  5 


5^/- 


II  est  a  renianiiier  cjue  loutcs  ces  conversions  de  rentes,  (|iii 
ont  diminiie  riiiteret  paye  par  les  Ktats  a  leurs  pretein  s,  n'ont  luil- 
lement  diniiiuie  les  charges  de  ces  divers  pays.  I'our  etre  juste, 
etpiitable,  toiite  conversion  de  rentes  doit  avoir  pour  conseipience 
line  ditniiuilion  d'impots.  II  n'en  a  rien  ete.  Preiiez  tons  les 
budgets  (les  pays  ipii  out  edectue  ties  conversions  ;  compare/  les 
chitlVes  lies  depenses  puhliiiues  et  des  impots  a  ceiix  (pii  etaient 
inscrits  avant  et  apii-s  les  conversions,  voiis  trouvcrez  partout  ties 
aiignientatioiis  de  depenses  et  d'impots. 

II  faiit  remarqiier,  d'autre  part,  ipie  preS(pie  toiites  ces  conver- 
sions n'ont  })U  etre  ivalisees  avec  succes  fu'autant  tpie  la  haute 
banq';,.  est  intervenue  et  leiir  a  doiine  son  coiicoiirs.  II  conviont 
cnfin  tie  dire  tine  toiites  ces  operations  ont  ete  tacilitees  par 
I'abontlance  toujours  croissante  des  capitaux  disponibles.  et  par  la 
baisse  tin  taiix  tie  I'interet,  consequence  de  cette  abondance  des 
capitaux. 

l\\-  Ah'A/SSEMKyr  DU   TAVX  DE  LISTtRkr  DE  LARGEST  DEPUIS 

1S70. 

Depiiis  1S70,  et  surtont  depiiis  Ic  join  011,  pour  la  premiere  fois 
tlepnis  la  guerre,  la  reiue  59^  tut  ct)te'  an  pair,  c'est-a-tlire  a  iix), 
le  4  septembre  1S74.  des  changements  protonds  se  sont  produits 
sur  les  inarches  fVaiiij'ais  et  etrangers  dans  le  tanx  de  capitalisa- 
tion. Siiccessivement,  d'annee  en  annee,  lenteinent  d'abord,  puis 
par  cHapes  vigourenseinent  franchies,  les  valeurstle  premierordi':, 
de  preini(''re  suretcS  descendirent  dc  5'/)  d'interet  a  4,1''  ;  les 
valeurs  de  second  ordre,  (|ui  rapportaient  6J.  7etS'/  ,  ('-^.'.cendirent 
il  5'/i  et  ineme  au-dessous.  A  mesun-qiie  le  capif:;!  decesvaleurs 
augmeiitait,  leiir  revenu  devenait  natuiellemenl  moins  eleve. 

An  lendemain  de  la  guerre,  nil  capital  de  i(K),(yj()  place  en 
rentes  5'y{.  aiirait  produit  5-5fX)  a  6  000  fr.  de  rentes.  Le  meme 
capital,  place  aujourtriuii  en  rentes  fraiii^aises  y/c  protluirait  a 
peine  3. 700  francs. 

Depuis  1871),  le  6'^  Americain  a  disparu  ;   conveiti  d'aboiil  en 


36o 


SKLECTIONS. 


5%,  puis  en  ^''/r,^  le  voila  mainteiiant  cii  3%  en  attendant  inie 
nouvelle  conversion  en  2^. 

Le  4J  Ik'lj^e,  les  fonds  AUemands,  tels  que  les  5%  IJadois, 
Ravarois,  Wurteniher^eois,  etc.,  o'lt,  sur  la  cote,  cede  la  place  ii 
(les  titles  de  nioindre  rapport,  ii  des  rentes  de  ^i  et  de  3'/^;,  (jui 
atteij^nent  le  pair. 

Dans  riunope  entiere,  les  rentes  49??  fpn  ont  6te  creees  en 
reniplacenient  de  rentes  5%  sent  an  pair  et  niC'me  au-<lessus,  on 
ont  ete  eclian^jees  contre  du  j-'g  on  du  3%. 

Des  fonds  etranji^ers,  exoticpies.  coninie  Ton  (lit  en  Bonrsc, 
arrivent  mainteiiant  au  tanx  nioyen  ancpiel  se  nc-^ociaient  ancien- 
neinent  de  hons  crt^dits  emoptiens  de  second  ordre.  Les  cotes 
anj^Iaises  nous  donnent  a  cet  t'f^ard,  de  cnrieux  exemples. 

Jl  y  a  dix  ans  seulenient,  voici,  notaninient.  le  7%  Japonais 
(pii  valait  i(x>  fr.  fin  1S76  et  (jni  mainteiiant  vant  1 13  ;  a  pareille 
(late,  le  6'/  Ar<^entin  1868,  cotd-  anjourd'liui  loi  a  102,  valait  60; 
le  5'/  Hrt'-silien  valait  tin  1876,  87  a  88;  11  est  maintenant  a  103, 
trois  points  an-dessns  du  pair. 

Le5%  Italien  (jui  ne  donne  net  cpie  434,  valait,  (in  1S76,  72 
fr.  :  il  (l-tait  dans  ces  derniers  temps  a  102  tV.  et  ineine  au-dessus, 
c'est-ii-dire  20  fr.  plus  clier  que  le  prix  auquel  nous  emettions  en 
1871  notre  rente  fran^aise  ^'/( . 

Le  s'/f  Roumain,  ([ui  valait  40  fr.  fin  1S76,  et  (jui  rapportait 
cons(''(|ucminent  S'/, ,  se  inl'<;"ocie  au-dessus  de  90.  On  d'value 
done  aujourd'hiii  le  civdit  de  la  Roumanie  a  un  taux  bien  supd'- 
rieur  a  celui  au(|uel  notre  propre  crd'dit  tl'tait  estimti  en  1871  et 
1872,  puis(pie,  dans  ces  deux  aniR'cs,  la  France  (imettait  ses 
rentes  5%    1  S2,50  et  84  fr.  50. 

La  cnti.  aitricliienne  4'/^  (jr,  cott^c  89  a  90  fr.  et  (pii,  il  y  a 
pen  de  teiii)  s'esi  nej^ocite  meme  a  96  et  <)7  f r  ,  est  encore  plus 
liaut  (|ue  110s  rentes  fVan(,-aises  en  1871.  La  rente  Hongroisc  4*^ 
or,  a  valu  jns(|u'a  88  dans  ces  derniers  niois,  alors  que  nous  avons 
emis  du  5 ''/J   fran^ais  5  et  6  francs  plus  has. 

Voici,  pour  les  principaux  fonels  d'Etats,  la  ditr(!'rence  des  cours 
cotd'S  au  31  d(!'ceml)re  1869  et  au  31  dc'cembre  1886. 

31  dec.  iS6i;  31  il^c.  i(iS6 


3'/    F'^rant^ais 

4.34  Italic!)   .... 

(I'/o  Ameiicain  . 

4.\  HeljTe 

5%  Rus>e  1S62       .     . 
3'/i  L'onsolides  anglais 


70,0:; 

57'3o 

84 

102^ 

«5 
94 


82,20 
101,85 

134  (le49^,). 

95^40     (li5  3%). 
96 
loij 


laiit  line 

liadois, 
place  a 

rcecs  en 
L'ssus,  on 

Bourse, 
t  ancieii- 
^es  cotes 

Japonais 

ii  pareille 

a  la  it  60  ; 

int  a  103, 

1S76,  72 
lU-dessiis, 
_'ttioiis  en 

apportait 

n  cvalue 

|icii  supc- 

1S71  et 

ttait    ses 

|ii,  il  y  a 
ore  plus 
roise  4% 
lis  avons 

lies  couis 


le4%). 


nmm 


l.KS    DKTTF.S    I'LHI.K  )l'i:S. 


3^>I 


W- MODES   D'i.V/S.S/oy    ET     TV  PES  DE    REXTES  EAfP/.OVis    PAH 
L  E  S   GOr  VK  n  NEME  .V  TS    EM  Pit  U\  TE  lli  S. 

Nous  vcnons  de  nioutivr  comment  les  conversions  de  rentes 
ertectudes  par  les  princi[)aux  Etats  avaient  etc  realisi'-t-s  et  com- 
ment la  baisse  du  taux  de  Tintcri't  et  I'abondance  des  ca[)itaux 
avaient  facilite  ces  operations.  II  n'est  pas  sans  utilitc'  de  fairc 
remaripier  aussi  comment  les  divers  pays  elVectuent  leurs  em- 
prunts.  On  voit,  d'apres  cette  etude  comparative  des  detteseuro- 
peennes,  coinhicn  est  varice  la  diversitc  des  tvpes  de  rentes 
emises.  L'An<(leterre  a  i\\\  y/(; ^  du  2\'/,  ,  des  anuitcs  terminaMcs  : 
TAulriche,  ilu  4,20'^:  mctalliciue,  du  4%  or,  du  5'/  papier,  du 
5%  argent,  des  lots  a  primes  sans  interets.  La  Ik-lj^iijue  a  eu  du 
4^,  du  4%'  du  y/c  La  Kussie  a  «5mis  des  emprnnts  sous  fortne 
de  rentes  6'/;,  5%,  4%  ;  la  llollande  a  des  rentes  3,*,,  y/,  ,  z\'/f,  ; 
ritalie  a  \\\\  y/c^  du  y/^  et  vient  de  decrcter  du  4J''/<  ;  la  Norwcge 
a  du4J,  du4%,  ilu  3A  ;  le  Portu<i;al  a  du  5%  et  du  y/,  ;  la 
Prusse  u  du  \''/o  et  du  30%'  ''^  Roumanie  a  7%,  du  69^  .  du  5'/.  ; 
la  Saxe,  du  3.*,  et  du  3%  ;  la  Suede,  du  ^X'/v^  du  c\''f(,  du  "^i'/t  ;  le 
Wurtemherj^,  du  4J,  du  4%,  Ciwi^X'/f ,  etc.  Parmi  les  fonds  colo- 
niaux,  rn)us  trouvons  du  5'^  de  la  Nouvelle  Zelande,  du  5'/  (^iii'- 
bec,  du  d'/c  Queensland,  4.^,  4'/^  ct3.]%  des  Indes,  du  \'t,  du 
Canada,  de  la  Jamaique,  de  Tasmanie  du5%,  45  %i  4%  Victoria. 
Qiiel  ensei^i^nement  tirerde  ces  faitsPC'est  (lu'on  ne  pent  dire  d'une 
fa9on  absolue,  c'est  qu'il  n'est  pas  scientilKjuement  ni  pratique- 
ment  prouve  qu'il  soit  preferable  j)our  un  Etat  de  n'emprunter 
que  sous  un  meme  type  de  rentes,  et  que  la  divirsite  de  ces 
types  de  rentes  pent  nuire  a  leur  plus-value.  La  verite  est  qu'il 
en  est  des  Etats  comme  des  particuliers  :  le  meilleur  mode  d'em- 
prunt  est  celui  qui  coute  le  moins  cher  et  procure  la  plus  <^ran(le 
somme  des  capitaux.  II  pent  etre  utile  d'emprunter  sous  forme 
il'obliifations  ou  sous  forme  de  rentes;  en  y/o  ou  en  y/c  ;  en  5% 
on  en  4.]'/^;.  C'est  une  (juestion  d'opportunite  et  d'aj)preciation . 
Tons  les  gouvernements  out  eboisi  la  forme  il'emprnnt  la  plus 
avantageuse  aux  int(^rets  de  tons,  sans  s'astveindre  a  n'emettre 
qu'un  type  de  rentes  (it'termind  a  I'avance. 

II  en  est  de  meme  pour  le  mode  d'emission  des  emprunls. 
C'est  la  France  (jui,  lors  de  la  guerre  ile  Crimec;,  generalisa  le 
systeme  des  soiiscriptions  publicpies.  Avant  1S52,  les  emprnnts 
d'Etat  etaicnt  soumissionnes  par  de  grandes  maisfnis  <le  bancpie 
qui  pla^aient  ensuite  les  titres  de  rentes  dans  leur  clientele  :  plus 


f 


a 


li 


ii 


in 


362 


SELECTIONS. 


taid,  Ics  goiiviMiKMiicMits  firiMit  appol  (liivotcniciit  ;uix  capitaiix 
(111  public  sans  sc  siMvir  de  rmtt-rmcdiaiic  dcs  l)anc]iiicrs.  CopiMi- 
»lant,  dos  modilicalions  sciiciiscs  sc  sont  prodiiitcs  dans  Ic  sys- 
tt'iiie  des  soiiscriptioMs.  Nous  v«)y<)ns  rAnj^k'tcnc  pour  scs 
cnipruuts  colouiaux,  pf)ur  scs  ciiiprunts  dc  villcs,  cllcctuer  des 
appt'ls  au  credit  sous  i'ornic  il'adjiidication  pul)li(|iic.  I'211e  oll'rc 
4%  d'iiit<5rt't,  par  cxciiiplc  ;  die  s'cn<;a<;e  a  scrvir  d'ahord  les 
dciiiatides  de  ceux  (jui  si  .onteiiteut  d'uu  iuteret  m(»indre.  Cc 
svstenio  favorise  les  souscripteurs  les  inoiiis  exij^eants,  ne  de- 
couraj^e  pas  le  public  par  des  meconiptes  iminerites  U  la  repar- 
tition et  perniet  a  reni|)runteur  d'obtenir  les  conditions  les  plus 
favorables ;  ce  genre  de  sonscription  rend  les  eniprunts  moins 
onereux  pour  les  eniprunteurs.  Les  autres  modes  d'eniprunts 
employes  par  les  goiivernenients  sont  des  ventes  t'ermes  ou  a 
option  a  des  banquiers  et  a  des  etablissements  de  credit.  IMusieurs 
Etats  se  sont  bornt^s  a  charger  des  maisons  de  bainpic  d'emettrc 
les  emprunts  ((u'ils  desiraient  efVectuer,  movennant  une  com- 
tnissiou.  A  I'exccption  de  I'Angleterrc  et  de  la  I'' ranee,  prescjue 
tons  les  gouvernements  europeens  traitent  encore  avec  des  syu- 
dicats  de  baiujuiers  pour  leurs  emissions. 


II 


VI.  —  DE  LA   RirAliTfTIOJ^  DES  FO.VDS  PULfCS  £tRA\GERS   PA.VS 
LES  PORTEFEUlLL'iS  FRASi^-AlS. 

Dans  le  cours  dc  cette  etude,  nous  avons  essaye  de  connaitre 
le  montant  approximatif  des  valeurs  etrangeres  ap|)artenant  a  nos 
nationaux.  Les  chitlVes  (pie  (pie  nous  avons  citt!'s  nous  out  (it(5 
donnj^s  par  les  ministres  des  finances  et  les  directeurs  de  stalis- 
ti(pie  des  gouvernements  t-trangers ;  mais  ils  auraieut  besoin 
d'etre  complC-ti'S,  et  aucune  autoritc  ne  pourrait  mieux  cpie  notre 
conseil  supd-rieur  de  statisti([ue  obtenir  et  gr(iuper  des  indications 
plus  nombreuses  sur  ce  i-ujet  im|)ortant. 

A  de  rares  exceptions  pies,  et  sauf  des  circonstances  particu- 
lieres  telles  cpie  la  hausse  ou  la  baisse  du  prix  du  cliange  sur 
des  valeurs  intcrnationales,  les  capitalistes  iVan^ais  (pii  posse- 
dent  des  valeurs  i!'trangeris  ne  font  pas  recevoir  le  montant  de 
leurs  coupons  d'inti-ret  a  I'd'trangcr  :  ils  s'adressent  ii  des  ban- 
quiers et  des  t!'tablisseinents  de  crd'dit  fran9ais,  pour  encaisser 
leurs  coupons  (>cluis. 

Nous  sommes  convaincus  que  MM.  de  Rothschild,  la  Banque 
de  Paris,  la  Soci«it(^  Gt^ntSrale,  le  Compton  d'Escompte,  le  Crtidit 


IKS    DFITKS    Prni.FiM'ES. 


3^3 


capitaiix 
.  Ccpcn- 
is  If  sys- 
pour  sfs 
•ctucr  <les 
ICllo  ollVe 
ahortl  les 
1(1  re.  Co 
Is,   lie  (le- 

la  repar- 
s  les  plus 
iits  inoiiis 
reinprunts 
lines  oil  a 

IMusieiirs 
;  d't'inettre 

line  coin- 
e,  prescpie 
c  ties  svii- 


;ers  pa.vs 


connaitrc 
■nant  ii  nos 
lus  out  etii 

(le  stalis- 


Ml 


)ts()in 


t    I 
(jiie  iKJtrc 
tiidicatious 


ts  patticu- 

liaiijj^e  sur 

Ipii    posse- 

^onlant  ile 

des  ban- 

cncaisscr 


^a  Banque 
le  Cic'dit 


L\!)iiMais,  le  Credit  intlnstriei  et  tons  le«.  haiKjiiiers  — qui  paieiit 
uiie  pateiite  spt\iale  eoinine  ellt^'tiiaiit  des  paicnients  de  eonpoiis 
eltanj^eis,  —  lepoiidraient  sans  diirKultes  a  nn  (piestionnairc 
(pie   le  Coiiseil   siiperieni"  de   statistiqiie  leiir  adresserait. 

Cc  n'cst  pas  par  simple  curiosite  que  des  doeiiiiients  seniMahlcs 
aiiniient  hesoiii  d'etre  mis  an  joiir.  Ia*s  cpiestioiis  linaiieirres  et 
llseales  doiveiif,  pins  (pie  Jamais,  prendre  le  pas  siir  les  (picstions 
politicpies.  Or,  ce  (]nc  nos  le^islafenrs  ct  la  pliqiart  de  nos 
hoinmes  p(>liti(pies  oonnaissent  le  moins.  c'est  I'exaete  situation 
de  la  fortune  pnl)li(pie  de  la  I'ranee.  le  montant  I't  la  puissance 
dc  son  eparu;ne,  la  nature  et  le  eiiillVe  (k-  ses  placements  soit  sur 
des  valeurs  rran(,"aises,  soit  siir  des  valenis  etrany^i-ies,  C'est  a  ce 
di'-f'aiit  de  connaissances  qu'il  faut  attriluier,  pour  heaiicoup.  les 
erreiirs  liscales  ecoiioini(pies  ct  liiiancieres  (pii  out  Ote  coinmises 
dans  I'ftahlissement,  rauj^mentation  ct  la  suppression  de  tel  on 
tel  inqx'it  de  prt'-ferencc  a  tel  on  tel  aiilrc.  A  nne  (.'-pixpie  oil  il  est 
question  (rimp(')t  sur  li  rentes,  d'impot  sur  les  valeurs  I'tiaii- 
•jeres  appartenant  a  di^  I'^rani^ais,  d'iinpt')!  sur  le  revenu,  rtc, 
ces  rensi'i'^iu'ments  sont  indespensaliles  si  Ton  vent  eviter  de 
danjft'ieiises  erreurs.  Le  Conseil  supc'rieiir  ne  doit  pas  lu'-siter,  a 
iiotre  avis,  a  faire  la  lumiere  sur  ces  cpiestions  sproiales  :  c'est 
(ill  cote  des  statistitpies  f'inaucieres,  nous  ne  saurions  trop  in- 
sister  sur  ce  point,  (pie  doivent  proter  les  etVorts  et  les  travaux 
des  homines  cmiiients  (pii  font  paitie  de  la  Commission. 

in.-DE   LA    COTE    ET  DE   LA    JV^dOC/AT/OX    PES    HE.VTES  F/iAy- 
tVl/.SAS-  AUX  lioUliSES  tTHANOkliES. 

Nous  devoMs  aiissi  sijijnaler  ime  reforme  (pie  nous  avons  hien 
soiivent  rt^cIaiiK-e  et  (pii  paraitra  sans  douti;  utile  a  obtenir 
(piaiid  on  so  sera  rendu  coinpte  de  rimporlance  des  emprimts 
etranj^ers  contracti-s  en  France.  A  I'exceptiou  des  fotids  allemands, 
tons  Ic's  foiids  d'l'^tat  etian<4ers.  toutes  les  pi  iucipiiles  valt-iiis 
etran^eres  sont  cott^s  a  notre  hoiirse ;  tons  les  oouvcrneinents 
etraiij^ers  out  fait  appel  anx  capitaiix  fran(;ais.  Or,  auciiMc  de  nos 
rentes  fraiK^aises  n'est  cott!'e  ni  a  N'ieiine,  ni  a  Saiiit-lV'tersl)our<>^, 
ni  a  Stockolm,  ni  ii  Christiania.  ni  a  Rome,  ni  ;\  Floreiiee,  ni  a 
Madrid,  ni  a  Lisbomie,  ni  a  Athenes.  Notre  y/,  est  cote-  a  I.on- 
dres,  Hruxelles  et  Amsterdam.  Va  c'est  tout.  Cette  situation  me- 
rile  qn'on  y  porte  attention. 

L'allUience  des  funds  d'Etat  ('•tranj^ers  sua  le  marclie  fran^ais, 


f 


3:^ 


3^H 


SELECTIONS. 


la  facilite  avt'c  la(|uc'llc  ils  s'y  placciit  ct  s'y  ncgocient,  sont  (lf> 
fails  tiiiaiu'icrs  (jui  rt\  '.•li'iit  iiiif  tciulaiKc  dcs  capitaux  coiitre 
la(|Ut'llt'  il  si'rait  pi-iit-i-trc  a  las  lois  tics  (lillicile  dc  tciiti-r  iinc 
i"c'acti(tn  soudaiiiL'  ct  violeiitc. 

II  est  cfrtainciiii'iit  rc^icttahlf  (iiie  iios  iiatioiiaux  devieimi'iit 
Ics  crcaiicicrs  d'I"Itats  dont  la  solvahililc  ct  k-  credit  soiit  doutcux. 
II  est  noil  moiiis  tachcux  (ju'aiix  capitaiix  Iciitciucnt  toiiiitis  par  Ics 
homnics  d'l^par^nL'  de  notrc  pays  sc  siil)stitucMit  dcs  litres  ctran<,aM>. 
depoiirvus  de  j^araiitie  serieiise. 

Mais,  d'aiitre  part,  il  ne  saurait  etre  maiivais  et  il  est  nieine 
iiecessaire  et  utile,  an  p(jint  de  viie  financier  et  econcMniipie,  (pie 
les  nations  honnetcs  el  notoireinenl  s(tlvai)les  soienl  debitrices  de 
la  noire.  II  ne  saurait  elre  inauvais  (ju'a  un  inoinent  donne  il  y 
ait  cnlre  les  mains  des  capilalistes  IVaiK^ais  uiie  cerlaine  cpi;intile 
dc  hot)  papier  etranger,  bieii  ct  duinent  garanti,  ct  facileincnl 
realisable. 

On  coni^oit  cependaiil  tpi'il  y  a  un  certain  ecpiilibre  financier 
international  (|ue  ne  saurait  etre  roinpu  sail  inconvi^'nienl.  On 
con^oit  le  peril  cpTil  y  aurait  pour  la  France  a  ne  compter  an 
dehors  (pie  des  debiteurs  ct  point  de  crt^anciers,  a  loujours  absorber 
Ic  papier  et  ne  jamais  on  cc'dcr,  u  sc  salurer  de  valeurs  elrangercs 
tandis  (|ii'clU'  ne  placerail  point  dans  les  aulres  pays  une  (pianliti' 
a  pen  pies  (!'(|uivalente  de  valeurs  fVan^aises.  On  pent  enlin 
mesurer  le  danger  (pie  iKJtre  pays  pf>urrail  courir  le  jour  oil  les 
nations  (pii  nous  enlourent  gagneraient  plus  a  notrc  mine  (|ii'a 
notrc  prosptl-rite.  Mt}me  an  point  dc  vu  politi(pie,  ccs  consi(l(;ra- 
tions  ne  sont  pas  sans  consistance. 

I*oliti(piement,  aussi  bien  (juc  financierement,  il  est  done  sage 
el  desirable  (rintt^-resser  I'Europe  a  nos  progres,  a  notrc  develop- 
jjement  national,  a  noire  avenir  economi(pie. 

Un  des  moycns  les  j)his  efficaccs  d'alteindre  ce  but  est  de  placer 
parmi  les  capilalistes  t'trangers  la  plus  grande  (piantit<5  possible  de 
rentes  et  de  valeurs  iVani,aises. 

Mais,  dir.i-t-on,  cette  expansion  des  litres  fran^ais  s'opercra 
naturellemcnl,  grace  a  la  contiance  si  grande  (pic  Ic  credit  dc  la 
France  inspire  aux  aulres  pcuples.  Si  bien  (pi'il  n'y  aurait  cpra 
laisser  faire  an  temps,  aux  capitaux  tHrangers  et  a  la  sagcssc  des 
nations  pour  assurer  un  rcsullat  si  souhaitablc  pour  notrc  avenir. 

Ce  raisonnement  est  d'une  logicpie  excellentc  et  pent  parailre 
tres  soliv.ement  fondti  en  iheorie.  II  est  absolnment  vain,  s'il  n'csl 
pas  justitid'  par  la  pralicpie.     Or,  il  nc  Test  mallicurcusemcnl  pas. 


l.ES    DKTTES    ITHLK  (IKS. 


3''>5 


;,  8ont  lies 
uix  contrc 
Iciitcr  line 

tlcvicniu-nt 
It  (loutcux. 
nc's  par  Ics 
'sctran|,a'i> 

est  mcinc 
luiciuc,  ([Uf 
I'hitriccs  (Ic 

(lonnc  il  y 
nc  cjuantite 

liicilcincnt 

re  fmancicr 
in  lent.  On 
coinptcr  all 
IMS  altsorbcr 
s  I'trantii-rcs 


nc  ciiiantito 
pent   cntin 

ionr  oil  It'!^ 

luine   cin'a 

s  considcia- 

it   (It)nc  sa^'o 
tic  develop- 

•st  (Ic  placer 
possible  de 

[is  s'opercra 
credit  de  la 
'  aurait  ciu'a 
saj^esse  des 
|)tre  avenir. 
lent  paiaitre 
|ain,s'il  n'est 
Isenient  pas. 


Ce  n'est  pas  tout  de  dire  aux  autrcs  nations:  "  Moi,  France, 
j'l'-incts  de  la  rt-nte,  oM'rant  toiites  j^aranties,  plcine  securitr. 
I'rene/.-la  ;  il  n'y  a  rien  de  ineilleiir.  V'oiis  coiniaisst-/.  ina 
ricliesse,  nia  puissance  de  prodiutiini,  niun  amour  du  travail,  ina 
prohite  reconnue.  N'ous  save/  (pie  j'ai  tnti jours  paye  et  l)ien  pavt-  ; 
vous  save/,  conihien,  nienie  dans  Ics  circonstances  les  plus  criti- 
(pies,  j'ai  ett^  ponctuelle  a  reinplir  tnes  enj^a^enients.  I'rene/  de 
ma  rente!  (^iids  meillrurs  litres  ave/-voiis  die/  vous?  (^uels 
meillcurs  placements?     (^tid  cmploi   plus  productif  ct  plus  sur." 

I'll  tel  discouis  n'aurait  rien  ipie  dc  jusie  et  d'lxact.  Tout  le 
nionde  est  penetre  de  ces  verites  et  nous  n'aurions  a  precher  (pie 
des  convertis. 

Mais,  pour  (pie  I'etranfjer  prenne  beaucoup  de  nos  fonds  crf^tat, 
encore  I'aut-il  vpi'il  saclic  ou  aller  les  prendre,  oil  aller  les  aclicter, 
et  m^nie  ou  aller  les  vendre,  le  besoin  eclu'-ant.  11  I'aut  les  rendre 
accessibles  a  tons  les  capitalistes  de  I'luirope,  el  ne<;ociables  t'acile- 
nient  partout. 

Or,  c'est  ce  dont  on  ne  nous  parait  pas  s'l^-tre  sunisamment 
occup«i. 

Comme  nous  I'avons  dit  plus  baut,  nos  rentes  fran^aises  ne 
sont  pas  coti-es  aux  bourses  ctranj;eres.  Dans  ces  dcrnieres 
annees,  de  j^rands  emprunls  out  c'te  etVectiies  die/  nous  notam- 
nient  en  rente  3'/)  aniortissable.  On  pent  dire  (pi'a  I'lieure  011 
nous  sommes,  cette  rente  est  prestpie  inconnue  sur  les  j^raiides 
places  flnancieres  de  I'Europe.  II  y  a  lii  une  faute  conimise,  une 
^rave  ne<^li<;eiice  (pi'il  taut  se  liater  de  r(!'parer.  On  doit  faire 
pour  nos  rentes  ce  (pie  les  aiitres  nations  tout  pour  Icurs  tonds 
d'Etat  (pi'elles  preiinent  taut  de  soin  de  nous  faire  coiinaitrc  et 
aiupiels  dies  ouvrent  acces  sur  tons  les  grands  niardies  europt^'ens. 


Vril.-GUEHIiE,  RUnWE   ou  RJ:i-OlA/TlON   INDUSTHIELLE    ET   £cO- 

Mais  ce  (pii,  a  notre  avis,  ressort  juscpi'a  I'evidence  du  travail 
aiupiel  nous  nous  sommes  livrt^s,  c'est  (pie  riuirope  cntierc, 
avec  le  poids  de  ses  d<f'penses  militaires,  avec  la  siirdiarj^e  des 
dettes  publi(pies  et  (rimp(')ts  qui  rt!'crasent,  inarclie,  si  die  persc!-- 
vere  dans  cette  voi'e,  a  la  guerre,  a  la  mine,  a  une  veritai>le  revo- 
lution indiistridle  et  (!*conomi(pie.  C^uel  tpie  soil  le  pessimisme 
d'une  telle  conciusion,  nous  ne  pouvons  taire  nos  impressions. 
La  paix  de  I'Europc  n'est,  a  vrai  dire,  qu'un  etat  de  guerre  latent, 


366 


SELECTIONS. 


¥ 


ct  cettc  situation  (nii  scniMc  la  condition  onliiiaifc  <ln  vicux  conti- 
nent pt'sc  (Ic  (k'ux  inanii-rt's  siM"  Ic  niondi*  civilisi'*:  die  lui  enleve, 
(I'mie  part,  une  bonne  partic  des  capitaiix  constitut's  par  I'eparj^ne 
annuello,    par    le    travail    de    tons,    ponr   entretenir   des  soldats, 
acheter  des  fiiHils,  des  canons,  des  nuniitions,  constrtiire  des  torte- 
resses,  des  navires  ;  d'antre  part,  elle  reinpeclu;  de  se  servir  de 
ces  capitaiix  t^noniies  pour  developper  Ic  commerce,  Tindiistrie, 
le  materiel  de  la  production,  diininuer  les  frais  j^eneraux  de  la 
nation.     L'apprehension  et  It-s  preparatit's  de  yuerre  devieiuient 
aussi  nuisibles  et  aussi  couteux  (}ue   la   j^uerre  elle-menie,     Les 
finances  de  I'J^uropc  sont  tellement  olu'ri'^es  qn'on  pent  craindre 
c|u'elles  ne  conduisent  fatalemcnt  les  {^ouvernements  a  se  deman- 
der  si  la  guerre,  avec  ses  iSventualites  terrihies,  ne  <loit   pas  ^'tre 
preferee  au  niaintien  d'une  paix  precaire  et  coftteuse.     Si  ce  n'est 
point  a  la  j^uerre  cpie  doiveiU  ahoutir  les  preparatit's  militaires  et 
les   armements  de  I'Europe,  ce  pourrait  hieii  etre,  ainsi  <pie    le 
disait,    il    v  a  vinj^t  ans.  lord   Stanley,    a   "  la    l)an(pien)Utc  des 
ttats."     Si  ce  n'est  ni  a  la  fjuerre  ni  a  la  mine  (]uc  doivent  con- 
duire  de  semhiables  folies,  c'est  assurement  a  une  revolution   in- 
duitrielle  et  economicpic. 

La  vielle  Europe  lutte  contre  la  concurrence  de  pays  jeuncs, 
riches  produisant  a  nieilleur  coin|)te.  II  est,  au-dela  de  I'Oct^'ui, 
une  Republique  puissante,  TAnK^ricpie,  qui  a  su  »5teindre  une 
dette  que  les  necessitds  d'une  grande  cause  lui  avaient  fait  con- 
tracter;  elle  oHre  au  monde  entier  le  spectacle  d'une  prospt^'rite 
sans  exemple.  Tout  riicemment,  le  messaj^e  ilu  president  Cleve- 
land a  I'ouverture  du  Conjures  a  traduit  le  sentiment  d'un  veritable 
embarras  dc  richesses.  En  Asie,  tons  les  peuples  commencenl  a 
profiter  des  dc^couvertes  et  des  profijres  que  I'lCurope  a  acconiplis, 
ct  commc  dans  ces  pays  le  prix  de  la  main-d'iLHivre  et  les  cbarges 
publicjues  soiit  pres(jue  nuls,  I'Europe  entiere  <iprouvera  cliat[ue 
annee,  de  plus  en  plus,  les  atVets  ile  I'apparition  sur  la  scene 
commerciale  et  industrielle,  de  tons  cos  peuples  qui  n'ont  pas  a 
payer,  tons  les  ans,  ni  quatre  milliards  et  demi  pour  les  depenses 
de  la  guerre,  ni  plufc  de  cinq  milliards  pour  les  interets  de  leurs 
dettes  publiques. 

Le  mart^chal  de  Moltke  disait  r<^cemment  au  Reichstag  "  qu'a 
la  longue  les  peuples  ne  pourront  plus  supporter  les  charges 
militaires."  II  aurait  pu  ajouter  que  le  jour  ou  les  peuples  se 
rendront  ccmpte  de  tout  ce  que  leur  cofite  la  guerre,  meme 
lorsqu'elle   demeure  a  I'^tat  de  simple   risque,  lorsqu'ils  conci- 


i.i:s  Dirni-s  I'ibi.k^jiks. 


3^7 


ti  vieux  coiiti- 
:llc  liii  enli'vc, 
i  par  IV'par^iif 
•   (les  HoldiitH, 
lire  (It's  forto- 
;  sc  servir  do 
ce,  rindiistrio, 
L'licraiix  dc  la 
re  deviemu-nt 
,'-m6me.     Lcs 
pent  craiudre 
ts  a  se  deinaii- 
doit  pas  etrc 
Si  ce  n'est 
"s  niilitaircs  et 
■,  aiiisi  (]ue    Ic 
in(|iieroute  des 
^  doiveiit  con- 
revolution  in- 

;  pays  jeunes, 
cla  de  rOcean, 
u  dteindre   une 

aient  fait  con- 
'une  prosp<!!Mit^ 
resident  Cleve- 
it  d'un  veritable 

commencent  a 
>e  a  acconiplis, 
i;  et  les  chary^es 
•ouvera  chatiue 
n  sur  hi  scene 
|ui  n'ont  pas  a 
ur  les  depcnses 
iterets  de  lenrs 


del 


lour  du'cLTT  ""'T''  '''""'^^  '"'^  '"  '>'"^--i^«te  cha,ne 
our  .lu  cote  de  la  pa.x,  k-.  Konverncs  sauront  ce  jour-la  dicer 
eurs  volontOs  a  leurs  «ouvernants.      I.s  ., ,  „,illianli  .Pau-nne    a 

K  rd    des    u.ll.ards  de    .liminution   de   la    <lette    dc     rA,„,rin.  .. 
.     -U  un  pu.ssant  ensei,nen,ent.      Non,  I.s  peuplen  ne  pourrl 
lu    a  la  lon^ne  suppor.c-r  de  tels  fardcaux  ;  non,  il.s  ne  pourront 
plus  contun.er  a  travailk-r,  a  poiner,  a  souHrir,  a  elever  p^-nihle 
rnentN^rsta-nilksp..^ 

cparKnes,  les  e  res  .,u,  leurs  sonl  chers,  soient  sacrilic-s  ct  detruits 
F-   a  Kucrre  dans  des  luttes  <M,.anteH<,ucH.     lis  vculent  la  pi 
P'of.ter  <le.s  h.entaits  c.uVlle  procu.e,  C-chan^^er  paisibknu.        e     ^ 
P''Hl".ts,  conuuercer,  travaillcr;   ils  veulent  tons  une  ad.ninis 
tion  econ(,n.e,  des  din,inuti(,ns  d'imp6ts.  .unnunstia- 

A  ces  d.:.sirs,  Ks  Koiner.ie.nents  ri:-p<.ndent  en  au-mentant  tons 
.es,..l.el,a^.n.ilitaire..spr.pa.^ 

U'^  peuples  finiront  par  se  lasser  ,lu  niaintic-n  .r,..,  tel  Otat  de 
cWs  ,,u.  nous  nonene  aux  temps  barbares :   la  civilise 
.'iMttu  les  barr.cres  cntre  Ich  pays  c-t  les  in.livi.lun,  rendu  les  com- 
"n.n.cat.ons  plus  rapi<ks  et  plus  facile^,  ctabli  des  cheu.ins  .i^  Iw 
U  des   routes,    creuse   des  canaux,   pcrce  des   ,nontaj,n,e«   ct    <les 

^^ri^'s''"';?^"  '\'"'^  ^'"^  ^"^'^^^«  modernes  d-une  ..^ 
auss  ncs.std.le  c,ue  la  j,M.erre  s'in.posait  aux  ^auva^^cs  et  •  ux 
socKJtes  anciennes.-  y.i^Wc-r,  ,887.  ^ 


eichstag  "  qu'a 
ter  les  charges 
u  les  peuples  se 
1  guerre,  meme 
lorsqu'ils  con^i- 


